Figure 3. The simulated temperature distribution and single-layer multi-track isothermograms of LPBF Hastelloy X, located at the bottom of the powder bed, are presented for various laser energy densities. (a) depicts the single-point temperature distribution at the bottom of the powder bed, followed by the isothermograms corresponding to laser energy densities of (b) 31 J/mm3 , (c) 43 J/mm3 , (d) 53 J/mm3 , (e) 67 J/mm3 , and (f) 91 J/mm3 .

An integrated multiscale simulation guiding the processing optimisation for additively manufactured nickel-based superalloys

적층 가공된 니켈 기반 초합금의 가공 최적화를 안내하는 통합 멀티스케일 시뮬레이션

Xing He, Bing Yang, Decheng Kong, Kunjie Dai, Xiaoqing Ni, Zhanghua Chen
& Chaofang Dong

ABSTRACT

Microstructural defects in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) metallic materials are correlated with processing parameters. A multi-physics model and a crystal plasticity framework are employed to predict microstructure growth in molten pools and assess the impact of manufacturing defects on plastic damage parameters. Criteria for optimising the LPBF process are identified, addressing microstructural defects and tensile properties of LPBF Hastelloy X at various volumetric energy densities (VED). The results show that higher VED levels foster a specific Goss texture {110} <001>, with irregular lack of fusion defects significantly affecting plastic damage, especially near the material surface. A critical threshold emerges between manufacturing defects and grain sizes in plastic strain accumulation. The optimal processing window for superior Hastelloy X mechanical properties ranges from 43 to 53 J/mm3 . This work accelerates the development of superior strengthductility alloys via LPBF, streamlining the trial-and-error process and reducing associated costs.

Figure 3. The simulated temperature distribution and single-layer multi-track isothermograms of LPBF Hastelloy X, located at the bottom of the powder bed, are presented for various laser energy densities. (a) depicts the single-point temperature distribution at the bottom of the powder bed, followed by the isothermograms corresponding to laser energy densities of (b) 31 J/mm3 , (c) 43 J/mm3 , (d) 53 J/mm3 , (e) 67 J/mm3 , and (f) 91 J/mm3 .
Figure 3. The simulated temperature distribution and single-layer multi-track isothermograms of LPBF Hastelloy X, located at the bottom of the powder bed, are presented for various laser energy densities. (a) depicts the single-point temperature distribution at the bottom of the powder bed, followed by the isothermograms corresponding to laser energy densities of (b) 31 J/mm3 , (c) 43 J/mm3 , (d) 53 J/mm3 , (e) 67 J/mm3 , and (f) 91 J/mm3 .

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Coating_image

Template-Free Scalable Fabrication of Linearly Periodic Microstructures by Controlling Ribbing Defects Phenomenon in Forward Roll Coating for Multifunctional Applications

다기능 응용을 위한 Forward Roll Coating 공정의 리브 경함 형상 제어를 통한 선형 주기적 미세구조물의 템플릿 프리 제작

Md Didarul Islam, Himendra Perera, Benjamin Black, Matthew Phillips,Muh-Jang Chen, Greyson Hodges, Allyce Jackman, Yuxuan Liu, Chang-Jin Kim,Mohammed Zikry, Saad Khan, Yong Zhu, Mark Pankow, and Jong Eun Ryu

Abstract


Periodic micro/nanoscale structures from nature have inspired the scientific community to adopt surface design for various applications, including superhydrophobic drag reduction. One primary concern of practical applications of such periodic microstructures remains the scalability of conventional microfabrication technologies. This study demonstrates a simple template-free scalable manufacturing technique to fabricate periodic microstructures by controlling the ribbing defects in the forward roll coating. Viscoelastic composite coating materials are designed for roll-coating using carbon nanotubes (CNT) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which helps achieve a controllable ribbing with a periodicity of 114–700 µm. Depending on the process parameters, the patterned microstructures transition from the linear alignment to a random structure. The periodic microstructure enables hydrophobicity as the water contact angles of the samples ranged from 128° to 158°. When towed in a static water pool, a model boat coated with the microstructure film shows 7%–8% faster speed than the boat with a flat PDMS film. The CNT addition shows both mechanical and electrical properties improvement. In a mechanical scratch test, the cohesive failure of the CNT-PDMS film occurs in ≈90% higher force than bare PDMS. Moreover, the nonconductive bare PDMS shows sheet resistance of 747.84–22.66 Ω □−1 with 0.5 to 2.5 wt% CNT inclusion.

 

Keywords


multifunctional surfaces, periodic microtrenches, ribbing instabilities,roll coating, scalable manufacturing

 

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Ultrafast laser ablation of tungsten carbide: Quantification of threshold range and interpretation of feature transition

Ultrafast laser ablation of tungsten carbide: Quantification of threshold range and interpretation of feature transition

텅스텐 카바이드의 초고속 레이저 제거: 임계값 범위의 정량화 및 특징 전환 해석

Xiong ZhangChunjin WangBenny C. F. CheungGaoyang MiChunming Wang
First published: 07 February 2024
https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.19718

Abstract

Tungsten carbide was manufactured by picosecond laser in this study. Shapes of the ablated craters evolved from parabolic-like (less than 10 pulses) to Gaussian-like (more than 500 pulses) as the pulse number increased. The shape changes were closely associated with the discontinuous diameter expansion of ablated crater. To explain these phenomena, two thresholds were identified: an upper threshold of 0.129 J/cm2 and a lower threshold of 0.099 J/cm2. When the laser energy exceeded the upper threshold, ablation occurred under the laser-energy-dominated mode. When the laser energy fell between the upper and lower thresholds, ablation occurred under the cumulative-effect-dominated mode. The transition of ablation mode contributed to the diameter expansion and shape change. In addition, elemental composition varied significantly at the ablated crater and heat-affected zone (HAZ), which were related to the degrees of reactions that occurred at different distances from the laser. Finally, surface hardness decreased from base material (32.52 GPa) to edge of crater (11.59 GPa) due to the escape of unpaired interstitial C atoms from the grain boundaries.

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Coupled CFD-DEM simulation of interfacial fluid–particle interaction during binder jet 3D printing

Coupled CFD-DEM simulation of interfacial fluid–particle interaction during binder jet 3D printing

바인더 제트 3D 프린팅 중 계면 유체-입자 상호 작용에 대한 CFD-DEM 결합 시뮬레이션

Joshua J. Wagner, C. Fred Higgs III

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2024.116747

Abstract

The coupled dynamics of interfacial fluid phases and unconstrained solid particles during the binder jet 3D printing process govern the final quality and performance of the resulting components. The present work proposes a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and discrete element method (DEM) framework capable of simulating the complex interfacial fluid–particle interaction that occurs when binder microdroplets are deposited into a powder bed. The CFD solver uses a volume-of-fluid (VOF) method for capturing liquid–gas multifluid flows and relies on block-structured adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) to localize grid refinement around evolving fluid–fluid interfaces. The DEM module resolves six degrees of freedom particle motion and accounts for particle contact, cohesion, and rolling resistance. Fully-resolved CFD-DEM coupling is achieved through a fictitious domain immersed boundary (IB) approach. An improved method for enforcing three-phase contact lines with a VOF-IB extension technique is introduced. We present several simulations of binder jet primitive formation using realistic process parameters and material properties. The DEM particle systems are experimentally calibrated to reproduce the cohesion behavior of physical nickel alloy powder feedstocks. We demonstrate the proposed model’s ability to resolve the interdependent fluid and particle dynamics underlying the process by directly comparing simulated primitive granules with one-to-one experimental counterparts obtained from an in-house validation apparatus. This computational framework provides unprecedented insight into the fundamental mechanisms of binder jet 3D printing and presents a versatile new approach for process parameter optimization and defect mitigation that avoids the inherent challenges of experiments.

바인더 젯 3D 프린팅 공정 중 계면 유체 상과 구속되지 않은 고체 입자의 결합 역학이 결과 구성 요소의 최종 품질과 성능을 좌우합니다. 본 연구는 바인더 미세액적이 분말층에 증착될 때 발생하는 복잡한 계면 유체-입자 상호작용을 시뮬레이션할 수 있는 전산유체역학(CFD) 및 이산요소법(DEM) 프레임워크를 제안합니다.

CFD 솔버는 액체-가스 다중유체 흐름을 포착하기 위해 VOF(유체량) 방법을 사용하고 블록 구조 적응형 메쉬 세분화(AMR)를 사용하여 진화하는 유체-유체 인터페이스 주위의 그리드 세분화를 국지화합니다. DEM 모듈은 6개의 자유도 입자 운동을 해결하고 입자 접촉, 응집력 및 구름 저항을 설명합니다.

완전 분해된 CFD-DEM 결합은 가상 도메인 침지 경계(IB) 접근 방식을 통해 달성됩니다. VOF-IB 확장 기술을 사용하여 3상 접촉 라인을 강화하는 향상된 방법이 도입되었습니다. 현실적인 공정 매개변수와 재료 특성을 사용하여 바인더 제트 기본 형성에 대한 여러 시뮬레이션을 제시합니다.

DEM 입자 시스템은 물리적 니켈 합금 분말 공급원료의 응집 거동을 재현하기 위해 실험적으로 보정되었습니다. 우리는 시뮬레이션된 기본 과립과 내부 검증 장치에서 얻은 일대일 실험 대응물을 직접 비교하여 프로세스의 기본이 되는 상호 의존적인 유체 및 입자 역학을 해결하는 제안된 모델의 능력을 보여줍니다.

이 계산 프레임워크는 바인더 제트 3D 프린팅의 기본 메커니즘에 대한 전례 없는 통찰력을 제공하고 실험에 내재된 문제를 피하는 공정 매개변수 최적화 및 결함 완화를 위한 다용도의 새로운 접근 방식을 제시합니다.

Introduction

Binder jet 3D printing (BJ3DP) is a powder bed additive manufacturing (AM) technology capable of fabricating geometrically complex components from advanced engineering materials, such as metallic superalloys and ultra-high temperature ceramics [1], [2]. As illustrated in Fig. 1(a), the process is comprised of many repetitive print cycles, each contributing a new cross-sectional layer on top of a preceding one to form a 3D CAD-specified geometry. The feedstock material is first delivered from a hopper to a build plate and then spread into a thin layer by a counter-rotating roller. After powder spreading, a print head containing many individual inkjet nozzles traverses over the powder bed while precisely jetting binder microdroplets onto select regions of the spread layer. Following binder deposition, the build plate lowers by a specified layer thickness, leaving a thin void space at the top of the job box that the subsequent powder layer will occupy. This cycle repeats until the full geometries are formed layer by layer. Powder bed fusion (PBF) methods follow a similar procedure, except they instead use a laser or electron beam to selectively melt and fuse the powder material. Compared to PBF, binder jetting offers several distinct advantages, including faster build rates, enhanced scalability for large production volumes, reduced machine and operational costs, and a wider selection of suitable feedstock materials [2]. However, binder jetted parts generally possess inferior mechanical properties and reduced dimensional accuracy [3]. As a result, widescale adoption of BJ3DP to fabricate high-performance, mission-critical components, such as those common to the aerospace and defense sectors, is contingent on novel process improvements and innovations [4].

A major obstacle hindering the advancement of BJ3DP is our limited understanding of how various printing parameters and material properties collectively influence the underlying physical mechanisms of the process and their effect on the resulting components. To date, the vast majority of research efforts to uncover these relationships have relied mainly on experimental approaches [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], which are often expensive and time-consuming and have inherent physical restrictions on what can be measured and observed. For these reasons, there is a rapidly growing interest in using computational models to circumvent the challenges of experimental investigations and facilitate a deeper understanding of the process’s fundamental phenomena. While significant progress has been made in developing and deploying numerical frameworks aimed at powder spreading [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27] and sintering [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], simulating the interfacial fluid–particle interaction (IFPI) in the binder deposition stage is still in its infancy. In their exhaustive review, Mostafaei et al. [2] point out the lack of computational models capable of resolving the coupled fluid and particle dynamics associated with binder jetting and suggest that the development of such tools is critical to further improving the process and enhancing the quality of its end-use components.

We define IFPI as a multiphase flow regime characterized by immiscible fluid phases separated by dynamic interfaces that intersect the surfaces of moving solid particles. As illustrated in Fig. 1(b), an elaborate IFPI occurs when a binder droplet impacts the powder bed in BJ3DP. The momentum transferred from the impacting droplet may cause powder compaction, cratering, and particle ejection. These ballistic disturbances can have deleterious effects on surface texture and lead to the formation of large void spaces inside the part [5], [13]. After impact, the droplet spreads laterally on the bed surface and vertically into the pore network, driven initially by inertial impact forces and then solely by capillary action [33]. Attractive capillary forces exerted on mutually wetted particles tend to draw them inward towards each other, forming a packed cluster of bound particles referred to as a primitive [34]. A single-drop primitive is the most fundamental building element of a BJ3DP part, and the interaction leading to its formation has important implications on the final part characteristics, such as its mechanical properties, resolution, and dimensional accuracy. Generally, binder droplets are deposited successively as the print head traverses over the powder bed. The traversal speed and jetting frequency are set such that consecutive droplets coalesce in the bed, creating a multi-drop primitive line instead of a single-drop primitive granule. The binder must be jetted with sufficient velocity to penetrate the powder bed deep enough to provide adequate interlayer binding; however, a higher impact velocity leads to more pronounced ballistic effects.

A computational framework equipped to simulate the interdependent fluid and particle dynamics in BJ3DP would allow for unprecedented observational and measurement capability at temporal and spatial resolutions not currently achievable by state-of-the-art imaging technology, namely synchrotron X-ray imaging [13], [14], [18], [19]. Unfortunately, BJ3DP presents significant numerical challenges that have slowed the development of suitable modeling frameworks; the most significant of which are as follows:

  • 1.Incorporating dynamic fluid–fluid interfaces with complex topological features remains a nontrivial task for standard mesh-based CFD codes. There are two broad categories encompassing the methods used to handle interfacial flows: interface tracking and interface capturing [35]. Interface capturing techniques, such as the popular volume-of-fluid (VOF) [36] and level-set methods [37], [38], are better suited for problems with interfaces that become heavily distorted or when coalescence and fragmentation occur frequently; however, they are less accurate in resolving surface tension and boundary layer effects compared to interface tracking methods like front-tracking [39], arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian [40], and space–time finite element formulations [41]. Since interfacial forces become increasingly dominant at decreasing length scales, inaccurate surface tension calculations can significantly deteriorate the fidelity of IFPI simulations involving <100 μm droplets and particles.
  • 2.Dynamic powder systems are often modeled using the discrete element method (DEM) introduced by Cundall and Strack [42]. For IFPI problems, a CFD-DEM coupling scheme is required to exchange information between the fluid and particle solvers. Fully-resolved CFD-DEM coupling suggests that the flow field around individual particle surfaces is resolved on the CFD mesh [43], [44]. In contrast, unresolved coupling volume averages the effect of the dispersed solid phase on the continuous fluid phases [45], [46], [47], [48]. Comparatively, the former is computationally expensive but provides detailed information about the IFPI in question and is more appropriate when contact line dynamics are significant. However, since the pore structure of a powder bed is convoluted and evolves with time, resolving such solid–fluid interfaces on a computational mesh presents similar challenges as fluid–fluid interfaces discussed in the previous point. Although various algorithms have been developed to deform unstructured meshes to accommodate moving solid surfaces (see Bazilevs et al. [49] for an overview of such methods), they can be prohibitively expensive when frequent topology changes require mesh regeneration rather than just modification through nodal displacement. The pore network in a powder bed undergoes many topology changes as particles come in and out of contact with each other, constantly closing and opening new flow channels. Non-body-conforming structured grid approaches that rely on immersed boundary (IB) methods to embed the particles in the flow field can be better suited for such cases [50]. Nevertheless, accurately representing these complex pore geometries on Cartesian grids requires extremely high mesh resolutions, which can impose significant computational costs.
  • 3.Capillary effects depend on the contact angle at solid–liquid–gas intersections. Since mesh nodes do not coincide with a particle surface when using an IB method on structured grids, imposing contact angle boundary conditions at three-phase contact lines is not straightforward.

While these issues also pertain to PBF process modeling, resolving particle motion is generally less crucial for analyzing melt pool dynamics compared to primitive formation in BJ3DP. Therefore, at present, the vast majority of computational process models of PBF assume static powder beds and avoid many of the complications described above, see, e.g., [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58], [59]. Li et al. [60] presented the first 2D fully-resolved CFD-DEM simulations of the interaction between the melt pool, powder particles, surrounding gas, and metal vapor in PBF. Following this work, Yu and Zhao [61], [62] published similar melt pool IFPI simulations in 3D; however, contact line dynamics and capillary forces were not considered. Compared to PBF, relatively little work has been published regarding the computational modeling of binder deposition in BJ3DP. Employing the open-source VOF code Gerris [63], Tan [33] first simulated droplet impact on a powder bed with appropriate binder jet parameters, namely droplet size and impact velocity. However, similar to most PBF melt pool simulations described in the current literature, the powder bed was fixed in place and not allowed to respond to the interacting fluid phases. Furthermore, a simple face-centered cubic packing of non-contacting, monosized particles was considered, which does not provide a realistic pore structure for AM powder beds. Building upon this approach, we presented a framework to simulate droplet impact on static powder beds with more practical particle size distributions and packing arrangements [64]. In a study similar to [33], [64], Deng et al. [65] used the VOF capability in Ansys Fluent to examine the lateral and vertical spreading of a binder droplet impacting a fixed bimodal powder bed with body-centered packing. Li et al. [66] also adopted Fluent to conduct 2D simulations of a 100 μm diameter droplet impacting substrates with spherical roughness patterns meant to represent the surface of a simplified powder bed with monosized particles. The commercial VOF-based software FLOW-3D offers an AM module centered on process modeling of various AM technologies, including BJ3DP. However, like the above studies, particle motion is still not considered in this codebase. Ur Rehman et al. [67] employed FLOW-3D to examine microdroplet impact on a fixed stainless steel powder bed. Using OpenFOAM, Erhard et al. [68] presented simulations of different droplet impact spacings and patterns on static sand particles.

Recently, Fuchs et al. [69] introduced an impressive multipurpose smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) framework capable of resolving IFPI in various AM methods, including both PBF and BJ3DP. In contrast to a combined CFD-DEM approach, this model relies entirely on SPH meshfree discretization of both the fluid and solid governing equations. The authors performed several prototype simulations demonstrating an 80 μm diameter droplet impacting an unconstrained powder bed at different speeds. While the powder bed responds to the hydrodynamic forces imparted by the impacting droplet, the particle motion is inconsistent with experimental time-resolved observations of the process [13]. Specifically, the ballistic effects, such as particle ejection and bed deformation, were drastically subdued, even in simulations using a droplet velocity ∼ 5× that of typical jetting conditions. This behavior could be caused by excessive damping in the inter-particle contact force computations within their SPH framework. Moreover, the wetted particles did not appear to be significantly influenced by the strong capillary forces exerted by the binder as no primitive agglomeration occurred. The authors mention that the objective of these simulations was to demonstrate their codebase’s broad capabilities and that some unrealistic process parameters were used to improve computational efficiency and stability, which could explain the deviations from experimental observations.

In the present paper, we develop a novel 3D CFD-DEM numerical framework for simulating fully-resolved IFPI during binder jetting with realistic material properties and process parameters. The CFD module is based on the VOF method for capturing binder–air interfaces. Surface tension effects are realized through the continuum surface force (CSF) method with height function calculations of interface curvature. Central to our fluid solver is a proprietary block-structured AMR library with hierarchical octree grid nesting to focus enhanced grid resolution near fluid–fluid interfaces. The GPU-accelerated DEM module considers six degrees of freedom particle motion and includes models based on Hertz-Mindlin contact, van der Waals cohesion, and viscoelastic rolling resistance. The CFD and DEM modules are coupled to achieve fully-resolved IFPI using an IB approach in which Lagrangian solid particles are mapped to the underlying Eulerian fluid mesh through a solid volume fraction field. An improved VOF-IB extension algorithm is introduced to enforce the contact angle at three-phase intersections. This provides robust capillary flow behavior and accurate computations of the fluid-induced forces and torques acting on individual wetted particles in densely packed powder beds.

We deploy our integrated codebase for direct numerical simulations of single-drop primitive formation with powder beds whose particle size distributions are generated from corresponding laboratory samples. These simulations use jetting parameters similar to those employed in current BJ3DP machines, fluid properties that match commonly used aqueous polymeric binders, and powder properties specific to nickel alloy feedstocks. The cohesion behavior of the DEM powder is calibrated based on the angle of repose of the laboratory powder systems. The resulting primitive granules are compared with those obtained from one-to-one experiments conducted using a dedicated in-house test apparatus. Finally, we demonstrate how the proposed framework can simulate more complex and realistic printing operations involving multi-drop primitive lines.

Section snippets

Mathematical description of interfacial fluid–particle interaction

This section briefly describes the governing equations of fluid and particle dynamics underlying the CFD and DEM solvers. Our unified framework follows an Eulerian–Lagrangian approach, wherein the Navier–Stokes equations of incompressible flow are discretized on an Eulerian grid to describe the motion of the binder liquid and surrounding gas, and the Newton–Euler equations account for the positions and orientations of the Lagrangian powder particles. The mathematical foundation for

CFD solver for incompressible flow with multifluid interfaces

This section details the numerical methodology used in our CFD module to solve the Navier–Stokes equations of incompressible flow. First, we introduce the VOF method for capturing the interfaces between the binder and air phases. This approach allows us to solve the fluid dynamics equations considering only a single continuum field with spatial and temporal variations in fluid properties. Next, we describe the time integration procedure using a fractional-step projection algorithm for

DEM solver for solid particle dynamics

This section covers the numerical procedure for tracking the motion of individual powder particles with DEM. The Newton–Euler equations (Eqs. (10), (11)) are ordinary differential equations (ODEs) for which many established numerical integrators are available. In general, the most challenging aspects of DEM involve processing particle collisions in a computationally efficient manner and dealing with small time step constraints that result from stiff materials, such as metallic AM powders. The

Unified CFD-DEM solver

The preceding sections have introduced the CFD and DEM solution algorithms separately. Here, we discuss the integrated CFD-DEM solution algorithm and related details.

Binder jet process modeling and validation experiments

In this section, we deploy our CFD-DEM framework to simulate the IFPI occurring during the binder droplet deposition stage of the BJ3DP process. The first simulations attempt to reproduce experimental single-drop primitive granules extracted from four nickel alloy powder samples with varying particle size distributions. The experiments are conducted with a dedicated in-house test apparatus that allows for the precision deposition of individual binder microdroplets into a powder bed sample. The

Conclusions

This paper introduces a coupled CFD-DEM framework capable of fully-resolved simulation of the interfacial fluid–particle interaction occurring in the binder jet 3D printing process. The interfacial flow of binder and surrounding air is captured with the VOF method and surface tension effects are incorporated using the CSF technique augmented by height function curvature calculations. Block-structured AMR is employed to provide localized grid refinement around the evolving liquid–gas interface.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Joshua J. Wagner: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. C. Fred Higgs III: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by a NASA Space Technology Research Fellowship, United States of America, Grant No. 80NSSC19K1171. Partial support was also provided through an AIAA Foundation Orville, USA and Wilbur Wright Graduate Award, USA . The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr. Craig Smith of NASA Glenn Research Center for the valuable input he provided on this project.

References (155)

Influences of the Powder Size and Process Parameters on the Quasi-Stability of Molten Pool Shape in Powder Bed Fusion-Laser Beam of Molybdenum

Influences of the Powder Size and Process Parameters on the Quasi-Stability of Molten Pool Shape in Powder Bed Fusion-Laser Beam of Molybdenum

몰리브덴 분말층 융합-레이저 빔의 용융 풀 형태의 준안정성에 대한 분말 크기 및 공정 매개변수의 영향

Abstract

Formation of a quasi-steady molten pool is one of the necessary conditions for achieving excellent quality in many laser processes. The influences of distribution characteristics of powder sizes on quasi-stability of the molten pool shape during single-track powder bed fusion-laser beam (PBF-LB) of molybdenum and the underlying mechanism were investigated.

The feasibility of improving quasi-stability of the molten pool shape by increasing the laser energy conduction effect and preheating was explored. Results show that an increase in the range of powder sizes does not significantly influence the average laser energy conduction effect in PBF-LB process. Whereas, it intensifies fluctuations of the transient laser energy conduction effect.

It also leads to fluctuations of the replenishment rate of metals, difficulty in formation of the quasi-steady molten pool, and increased probability of incomplete fusion and pores defects. As the laser power rises, the laser energy conduction effect increases, which improves the quasi-stability of the molten pool shape. When increasing the laser scanning speed, the laser energy conduction effect grows.

However, because the molten pool size reduces due to the decreased heat input, the replenishment rate of metals of the molten pool fluctuates more obviously and the quasi-stability of the molten pool shape gets worse. On the whole, the laser energy conduction effect in the PBF-LB process of Mo is low (20-40%). The main factor that affects quasi-stability of the molten pool shape is the amount of energy input per unit length of the scanning path, rather than the laser energy conduction effect.

Moreover, substrate preheating can not only enlarge the molten pool size, particularly the length, but also reduce non-uniformity and discontinuity of surface morphologies of clad metals and inhibit incomplete fusion and pores defects.

준안정 용융 풀의 형성은 많은 레이저 공정에서 우수한 품질을 달성하는 데 필요한 조건 중 하나입니다. 몰리브덴의 단일 트랙 분말층 융합 레이저 빔(PBF-LB) 동안 용융 풀 형태의 준안정성에 대한 분말 크기 분포 특성의 영향과 그 기본 메커니즘을 조사했습니다.

레이저 에너지 전도 효과와 예열을 증가시켜 용융 풀 형태의 준안정성을 향상시키는 타당성을 조사했습니다. 결과는 분말 크기 범위의 증가가 PBF-LB 공정의 평균 레이저 에너지 전도 효과에 큰 영향을 미치지 않음을 보여줍니다. 반면, 과도 레이저 에너지 전도 효과의 변동이 강화됩니다.

이는 또한 금속 보충 속도의 변동, 준안정 용융 풀 형성의 어려움, 불완전 융합 및 기공 결함 가능성 증가로 이어집니다. 레이저 출력이 증가함에 따라 레이저 에너지 전도 효과가 증가하여 용융 풀 모양의 준 안정성이 향상됩니다. 레이저 스캐닝 속도를 높이면 레이저 에너지 전도 효과가 커집니다.

그러나 열 입력 감소로 인해 용융 풀 크기가 줄어들기 때문에 용융 풀의 금속 보충 속도의 변동이 더욱 뚜렷해지고 용융 풀 형태의 준안정성이 악화됩니다.

전체적으로 Mo의 PBF-LB 공정에서 레이저 에너지 전도 효과는 낮다(20~40%). 용융 풀 형상의 준안정성에 영향을 미치는 주요 요인은 레이저 에너지 전도 효과보다는 스캐닝 경로의 단위 길이당 입력되는 에너지의 양입니다.

또한 기판 예열은 용융 풀 크기, 특히 길이를 확대할 수 있을 뿐만 아니라 클래드 금속 표면 형태의 불균일성과 불연속성을 줄이고 불완전한 융합 및 기공 결함을 억제합니다.

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Figure 1. Experimental setup and materials. (a) Schematic of the DED process, where three types of base materials were adopted—B1 (IN718), B2 (IN625), and B3 (SS316L), and two types of powder materials were adopted—P1 (IN718) and P2 (SS316L). (b) In situ high-speed imaging of powder flow and the SEM images of IN718 and SS316L powder particle. (c) Powder size statistics, and (d) element composition of powder IN718 (P1) and SS316L (P2).

Printability disparities in heterogeneous materialcombinations via laser directed energy deposition:a comparative stud

Jinsheng Ning1,6, Lida Zhu1,6,∗, Shuhao Wang2, Zhichao Yang1, Peihua Xu1,Pengsheng Xue3, Hao Lu1, Miao Yu1, Yunhang Zhao1, Jiachen Li4, Susmita Bose5 and Amit Bandyopadhyay5,∗

Abstract

적층 제조는 바이메탈 및 다중 재료 구조의 제작 가능성을 제공합니다. 그러나 재료 호환성과 접착성은 부품의 성형성과 최종 품질에 직접적인 영향을 미칩니다. 적합한 프로세스를 기반으로 다양한 재료 조합의 기본 인쇄 가능성을 이해하는 것이 중요합니다.

여기에서는 두 가지 일반적이고 매력적인 재료 조합(니켈 및 철 기반 합금)의 인쇄 적성 차이가 레이저 지향 에너지 증착(DED)을 통해 거시적 및 미시적 수준에서 평가됩니다.

증착 프로세스는 현장 고속 이미징을 사용하여 캡처되었으며, 용융 풀 특징 및 트랙 형태의 차이점은 특정 프로세스 창 내에서 정량적으로 조사되었습니다. 더욱이, 다양한 재료 쌍으로 처리된 트랙과 블록의 미세 구조 다양성이 비교적 정교해졌고, 유익한 다중 물리 모델링을 통해 이종 재료 쌍 사이에 제시된 기계적 특성(미세 경도)의 불균일성이 합리화되었습니다.

재료 쌍의 서로 다른 열물리적 특성에 의해 유발된 용융 흐름의 차이와 응고 중 결과적인 요소 혼합 및 국부적인 재합금은 재료 조합 간의 인쇄 적성에 나타난 차이점을 지배합니다.

이 작업은 서로 다른 재료의 증착에서 현상학적 차이에 대한 심층적인 이해를 제공하고 바이메탈 부품의 보다 안정적인 DED 성형을 안내하는 것을 목표로 합니다.

Additive manufacturing provides achievability for the fabrication of bimetallic and
multi-material structures; however, the material compatibility and bondability directly affect the
parts’ formability and final quality. It is essential to understand the underlying printability of
different material combinations based on an adapted process. Here, the printability disparities of
two common and attractive material combinations (nickel- and iron-based alloys) are evaluated
at the macro and micro levels via laser directed energy deposition (DED). The deposition
processes were captured using in situ high-speed imaging, and the dissimilarities in melt pool
features and track morphology were quantitatively investigated within specific process
windows. Moreover, the microstructure diversity of the tracks and blocks processed with varied
material pairs was comparatively elaborated and, complemented with the informative
multi-physics modeling, the presented non-uniformity in mechanical properties (microhardness)
among the heterogeneous material pairs was rationalized. The differences in melt flow induced
by the unlike thermophysical properties of the material pairs and the resulting element
intermixing and localized re-alloying during solidification dominate the presented dissimilarity
in printability among the material combinations. This work provides an in-depth understanding
of the phenomenological differences in the deposition of dissimilar materials and aims to guide
more reliable DED forming of bimetallic parts.

Figure 1. Experimental setup and materials. (a) Schematic of the DED process, where three types of base materials were adopted—B1
(IN718), B2 (IN625), and B3 (SS316L), and two types of powder materials were adopted—P1 (IN718) and P2 (SS316L). (b) In situ
high-speed imaging of powder flow and the SEM images of IN718 and SS316L powder particle. (c) Powder size statistics, and (d) element
composition of powder IN718 (P1) and SS316L (P2).
Figure 1. Experimental setup and materials. (a) Schematic of the DED process, where three types of base materials were adopted—B1 (IN718), B2 (IN625), and B3 (SS316L), and two types of powder materials were adopted—P1 (IN718) and P2 (SS316L). (b) In situ high-speed imaging of powder flow and the SEM images of IN718 and SS316L powder particle. (c) Powder size statistics, and (d) element composition of powder IN718 (P1) and SS316L (P2).
Figure 2. Deposition process and the track morphology. (a)–(c) Display the in situ captured tableaux of melt propagation and some physical
features during depositing for P1B1, P1B2, and P1B3, respectively. (d) The profiles of the melt pool at a frame of (t0 + 1) ms, and the flow
streamlines in the molten pool of each case. (e) The outer surface of the formed tracks, in which the colored arrows mark the scanning
direction. (f) Cross-section of the tracks. The parameter set used for in situ imaging was P-1000 W, S-600 mm·min–1, F-18 g·min–1. All the
scale bars are 2 mm.
Figure 2. Deposition process and the track morphology. (a)–(c) Display the in situ captured tableaux of melt propagation and some physical features during depositing for P1B1, P1B2, and P1B3, respectively. (d) The profiles of the melt pool at a frame of (t0 + 1) ms, and the flow streamlines in the molten pool of each case. (e) The outer surface of the formed tracks, in which the colored arrows mark the scanning direction. (f) Cross-section of the tracks. The parameter set used for in situ imaging was P-1000 W, S-600 mm·min–1, F-18 g·min–1. All the scale bars are 2 mm.

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Fig. 3. (a–c) Snapshots of the CtFD simulation of laser-beam irradiation: (a) Top, (b) longitudinal vertical cross-sectional, and (c) transversal vertical cross-sectional views. (d) z-position of the solid/liquid interface during melting and solidification.

Solute segregation in a rapidly solidified Hastelloy-X Ni-based superalloy during laser powder bed fusion investigated by phase-field simulations and computational thermal-fluid dynamics

Masayuki Okugawa ab, Kenji Saito a, Haruki Yoshima a, Katsuhiko Sawaizumi a, Sukeharu Nomoto c, Makoto Watanabe c, Takayoshi Nakano ab, Yuichiro Koizumi abShow moreAdd to MendeleyShareCite

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104079

Get rights and content Under a Creative Commons license open access

Abstract

Solute segregation significantly affects material properties and is a critical issue in the laser powder-bed fusion (LPBF) additive manufacturing (AM) of Ni-based superalloys. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate a computational thermal-fluid dynamics (CtFD) simulation coupled multi-phase-field (MPF) simulation with a multicomponent-composition model of Ni-based superalloy to predict solute segregation under solidification conditions in LPBF. The MPF simulation of the Hastelloy-X superalloy reproduced the experimentally observed submicron-sized cell structure. Significant solute segregations were formed within interdendritic regions during solidification at high cooling rates of up to 10K s-1, a characteristic feature of LPBF. Solute segregation caused a decrease in the solidus temperature (TS), with a reduction of up to 30.4 K, which increases the risk of liquation cracks during LPBF. In addition, the segregation triggers the formation of carbide phases, which increases the susceptibility to ductility dip cracking. Conversely, we found that the decrease in TS is suppressed at the melt-pool boundary regions, where re-remelting occurs during the stacking of the layer above. Controlling the re-remelting behavior is deemed to be crucial for designing crack-free alloys. Thus, we demonstrated that solute segregation at the various interfacial regions of Ni-based multicomponent alloys can be predicted by the conventional MPF simulation. The design of crack-free Ni-based superalloys can be expedited by MPF simulations of a broad range of element combinations and their concentrations in multicomponent Ni-based superalloys.

Graphical abstract

Keywords

Laser powder-bed fusion, Hastelloy-X Nickel-based superalloy, solute element segregation, computational thermal-fluid dynamics simulation, phase-field method

1. Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have attracted considerable attention as they allow us to easily build three-dimensional (3D) parts with complex geometries. Among the wide range of available AM techniques, laser powder-bed fusion (LPBF) has emerged as a preferred technique for metal AM [1][2][3][4][5]. In LPBF, metal products are built layer-by-layer by scanning laser, which fuse metal powder particles into bulk solids.

Significant attempts have been made to integrate LPBF techniques within the aerospace industry, with a particular focus on weldable Ni-based superalloys, such as IN718 [6][7][8], IN625 [9][10], and Hastelloy-X (HX) [11][12][13][14]. Non-weldable alloys, such as IN738LC [15][16] and CMSX-4 [1][17] are also suitable for their sufficient creep resistance under higher temperature conditions. However, non-weldable alloys are difficult to build using LPBF because of their susceptibility to cracking during the process. In general, a macro solute-segregation during solidification is suppressed by the rapid cooling conditions (up to 108 K s-1) unique to the LPBF process [18]. However, the solute segregation still occurs in the interdendritic regions that are smaller than the micrometer scale [5][19][20][21]; these regions are suggested to be related to the hot cracks in LPBF-fabricated parts. Therefore, an understanding of solute segregation is essential for the fabrication of reliable LPBF-fabricated parts while avoiding cracks.

The multiphase-field (MPF) method has gained popularity for modeling the microstructure evolution and solute segregation under rapid cooling conditions [5][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. Moreover, quantifiable predictions have been achieved by combining the MPF method with temperature distribution analysis methods such as the finite-element method (FEM) [20] and computational thermal-fluid dynamics (CtFD) simulations [28]. These aforementioned studies have used binary-approximated multicomponent systems, such as Ni–Nb binary alloys, to simulate IN718 alloys. While MPF simulations using binary alloy systems can effectively reproduce microstructure formations and segregation behaviors, the binary approximation might be affected by the chemical interactions between the removed solute elements in the target multicomponent alloy. The limit of absolute stability predicted by the Mullins-Sekerka theory [29] is also crucial because the limit velocity is close to the solidification rate in the LPBF process and is different in multicomponent and binary-approximated systems. The difference between the solidus and liquidus temperatures, ΔT0, directly determines the absolute stability according to the Mullins-Sekerka theory. For example, the ΔT0 values of IN718 and its binary-approximated Ni–5 wt.%Nb alloy are 134 K [28] and 71 K [30], respectively. The solidification rate compared to the limit of absolute stability, i.e., the relative non-equilibrium of solidification, changes by simplification of the system. It is therefore important to use the composition of the actual multicomponent system in such simulations. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no MPF simulation using a multicomponent model coupled with a temperature analysis simulation to predict solute segregation in a Ni-based superalloy.

In this study, we demonstrate that the conventional MPF model can reproduce experimentally observed dendritic structures by performing a phase-field simulation using the temperature distribution obtained by a CtFD simulation of a multicomponent Ni-based alloy (conventional solid-solution hardening-type HX). The MPF simulation revealed that the segregation behavior of solute elements largely depends on the regions of the melt pool, such as the cell boundary, the interior of the melt-pool boundary, and heat-affected regions. The sensitivities of the various interfaces to liquation and solidification cracks are compared based on the predicted concentration distributions. Moreover, the feasibility of using the conventional MPF model for LPBF is discussed in terms of the absolute stability limit.

2. Methods

2.1. Laser-beam irradiation experiments

Rolled and recrystallized HX ingots with dimensions of 20 × 50 × 10 mm were used as the specimens for laser-irradiation experiments. The specimens were irradiated with a laser beam scanned along straight lines of 10 mm in length using a laser AM machine (EOS 290 M, EOS) equipped with a 400 W Yb-fiber laser. Irradiation was performed with a beam power of P = 300 W and a scanning speed of V = 600 mm s-1, which are the conditions generally used in the LPBF fabrication of Ni-based superalloy [8]. The corresponding line energy was 0.5 J mm-1. The samples were cut perpendicular to the beam-scanning direction for cross-sectional observation using a field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM, JEOL JSM 6500). Crystal orientation analysis was performed by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The sizes of each crystal grain and their aspect ratios were evaluated by analyzing the EBSD data.

2.2. CtFD simulation

CtFD simulations of the laser-beam irradiation of HX were performed using a 3D thermo-fluid analysis software (Flow Science FLOW-3D® with Flow-3D Weld module). A Gaussian heat source model was used, in which the irradiation intensity distribution of the beam is regarded as a symmetrical Gaussian distribution over the entire beam. The distribution of the beam irradiation intensity is expressed by the following equation.(1)q̇=2ηPπR2exp−2r2R2.

Here, P is the power, R is the effective beam radius, r is the actual beam radius, and η is the beam absorption rate of the substrate. To improve the accuracy of the model, η was calculated by assuming multiple reflections using the Fresnel equation:(2)�=1−121+1−�cos�21+1+�cos�2+�2−2�cos�+2cos2��2+2�cos�+2cos2�.

ε is the Fresnel coefficient and θ is the incident angle of the laser. A local laser melt causes the vaporization of the material and results in a high vapor pressure. This vapor pressure acts as a recoil pressure on the surface, pushing the weld pool down. The recoil pressure is reproduced using the following equation.(3)precoil=Ap0exp∆HLVRTV1−TVT.

Here, p0 is the atmospheric pressure, ∆HLV is the latent heat of vaporization, R is the gas constant, and TV is the boiling point at the saturated vapor pressure. A is a ratio coefficient that is generally assumed to be 0.54, indicating that the recoil pressure due to evaporation is 54% of the vapor pressure at equilibrium on the liquid surface.

Table 1 shows the parameters used in the simulations. Most parameters were evaluated using an alloy physical property calculation software (Sente software JMatPro v11). The values in a previously published study [31] were used for the emissivity and the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, and the values for pure Ni [32] were used for the heat of vaporization and vaporization temperatures. The Fresnel coefficient, which determines the beam absorption efficiency, was used as a fitting parameter to reproduce the morphology of the experimentally observed melt region, and a Fresnel coefficient of 0.12 was used in this study.

Table 1. Parameters used in the CtFD simulations.

ParameterSymbolValueReference
Density at 298.15 Kρ8.24 g cm-3[]
Liquidus temperatureTL1628.15 K[]
Solidus temperatureTS1533.15 K[]
Viscosity at TLη6.8 g m-1 s-1[]
Specific heat at 298.15 KCP0.439 J g-1 K-1[]
Thermal conductivity at 298.15 Kλ10.3 W m-1 K-1[]
Surface tension at TLγL1.85 J m-2[]
Temperature coefficient of surface tensiondγL/dT–2.5 × 10−4 J m-2 K-1[]
EmissivityΕ0.27[31]
Stefan–Boltzmann constantσ5.67 × 10-8 W m-2 K-4[31]
Heat of fusionΔHSL2.76 × 102 J g-1[32]
Heat of vaporizationΔHLV4.29 × 10J g-1[32]
Vaporization temperatureTV3110 K[32]

Calculated using JMatPro v11.

The dimensions of the computational domain of the numerical model were 4.0 mm in the beam-scanning direction, 0.4 mm in width, and 0.3 mm in height. A uniform mesh size of 10 μm was applied throughout the computational domain. The boundary condition of continuity was applied to all boundaries except for the top surface. The temperature was initially set to 300 K. P and V were set to their experimental values, i.e., 300 W and 600 mm s-1, respectively. Solidification conditions based on the temperature gradient, G, the solidification rate, R, and the cooling rate were evaluated, and the obtained temperature distribution was used in the MPF simulations.

2.3. MPF simulation

Two-dimensional MPF simulations weakly coupled with the CtFD simulation were performed using the Microstructure Evolution Simulation Software (MICRESS) [33][34][35][36][37] with the TQ-Interface for Thermo-Calc [38]. A simplified HX alloy composition of Ni-21.4Cr-17.6Fe-0.46Mn-8.80Mo-0.39Si-0.50W-1.10Co-0.08 C (mass %) was used in this study. The Gibbs free energy and diffusion coefficient of the system were calculated using the TCNI9 thermodynamic database [39] and the MOBNi5 mobility database [40]. Τhe equilibrium phase diagram calculated using Thermo-Calc indicates that the face-centered cubic (FCC) and σ phases appear as the equilibrium solid phases [19]. However, according to the time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram [41], the phases are formed after the sample is maintained for tens of hours in a temperature range of 1073 to 1173 K. Therefore, only the liquid and FCC phases were assumed to appear in the MPF simulations. The simulation domain was 5 × 100 μm, and the grid size Δx and interface width were set to 0.025 and 0.1 µm, respectively. The interfacial mobility between the solid and liquid phases was set to 1.0 × 10-8 m4 J-1 s-1. Initially, one crystalline nucleus with a [100] crystal orientation was placed at the left bottom of the simulation domain, with the liquid phase occupying the remainder of the domain. The model was solidified under the temperature field distribution obtained by the CtFD simulation. The concentration distribution and crystal orientation of the solidified model were examined. The primary dendrite arm space (PDAS) was compared to the experimental PDAS measured by the cross-sectional SEM observation.

In an actual LPBF process, solidified layers are remelted and resolidified during the stacking of the one layer above, thereby greatly affecting solute element distributions in those regions. Therefore, remelting and resolidification simulations were performed to examine the effect of remelting on solute segregation. The solidified model was remelted and resolidified by applying a time-dependent temperature field shifted by 60 μm in the height direction, assuming reheating during the stacking of the upper layer (i.e., the upper 40 μm region of the simulation box was remelted and resolidified). The changes in the composition distribution and formed microstructure were investigated.

3. Results

3.1. Experimental observation of melt pool

Fig. 1 shows a cross-sectional optical microscopy image and corresponding inverse pole figure (IPF) orientation maps obtained from the laser-melted region of HX. The dashed line indicates the fusion line. A deep melted region was formed by keyhole-mode melting due to the vaporization of the metal and resultant recoil pressure. Epitaxial growth from the unmelted region was observed. Columnar crystal grains with an average diameter of 5.46 ± 0.32 μm and an aspect ratio of 3.61 ± 0.13 appeared at the melt regions (Figs. 1b–1d). In addition, crystal grains growing in the z direction could be observed in the lower center.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2a shows a cross-sectional backscattering electron image (BEI) obtained from the laser-melted region indicated by the black square in Fig. 1a. The bright particles with a diameter of approximately 2 μm observed outside the melt pool. It is well known that M6C, M23C6, σ, and μ precipitate phases are formed in Hastelloy-X [41]. These precipitates mainly consisted of Mo, Cr, Fe, and Ni; The μ and M6C phases are rich in Mo, while the σ and M23C6 phases are rich in Cr. The SEM energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis suggested that the bright particles are the stable precipitates as shown in Fig. S2 and Table S1. Conversely, there are no carbides in the melt pool. This suggests that the cooling rate is extremely high during LPBF, which prevents the formation of a stable carbide during solidification. Figs. 2b–2f show magnified BEI images at different height positions indicated in Fig. 2a. Bright regions are observed between the cells, which become fragmentary at the center of the melt pool, as indicated by the yellow arrow heads in Figs. 2e and 2f.

Fig. 2

3.2. CtFD simulation

Figs. 3a–3c show snapshots of the CtFD simulation of HX at 2.72 ms, with the temperature indicated in color. A melt pool with an elongated teardrop shape formed and keyhole-mode melting was observed at the front of the melt region. The cooling rate, temperature gradient (G), and solidification rate (R) were evaluated from the temporal change in the temperature distribution of the CtFD simulation results. The z-position of the solid/liquid interface during the melting and solidification processes is shown in Fig. 3d. The interface goes down rapidly during melting and then rises during solidification. The MPF simulation of the microstructure formation during solidification was performed using the temperature distribution. Moreover, the microstructure formation process during the fabrication of the upper layer was investigated by remelting and resolidifying the solidified layer using the same temperature distribution with a 60 μm upward shift, corresponding to the layer thickness commonly used in the LPBF of Ni-based superalloys.

Fig. 3

Figs. 4a–4c show the changes in the cooling rate, temperature gradient, and solidification rate in the center line of the melt pool parallel to the z direction. To output the solidification conditions at the solid/liquid interface in the melt pool, only the data of the mesh where the solid phase ratio was close to 0.5 were plotted. Solidification occurred where the cooling rate was in the range of 2.1 × 105–1.6 × 10K s-1G was in the range of 3.6 × 105–1.9 × 10K m-1, and R was in the range of 8.2 × 10−2–6.3 × 10−1 m s-1. The cooling rate was the highest near the fusion line and decreased as the interface approached the center of the melt region (Fig. 4a). G also exhibited the highest value in the regions near the fusion line and decreased throughout the solid/liquid interface toward the center of the melt pool (Fig. 4b). R had the lowest value near the fusion line and increased as the interface approached the center of the melt region (Fig. 4c).

Fig. 4

3.3. MPF simulations coupled with CtFD simulation

MPF simulations of solidification, remelting, and resolidification were performed using the temperature-time distribution obtained by the CtFD simulation. Fig. 5 shows the MPF solidified models colored by phase and Mo concentration. All the computational domains show the FCC phase after the solidification (Fig. 5a). Dendrites grew parallel to the heat flow direction, and solute segregations were observed in the interdendritic regions. At the bottom of the melt pool (Fig. 5d), planar interface growth occurred before the formation of primary dendrites. The bottom of the melt pool is the turning point of the solid/liquid interface from the downward motion in melting to the upward motion in solidification. Thus, the solidification rate at the boundary is zero, and is extremely low immediately above the molt-pool boundary. Here, the lower limit of the solidification rate (R) for dendritic growth can be represented by the constitutional supercooling criterion [29]Vcs = (G × DL) / ΔT, and planar interface growth occurs at R < VcsDL and ΔT denote the diffusion coefficient in the liquid and the equilibrium freezing range, respectively. The results suggest that planar interface growth occurs at the bottom of the melt pool, resulting in a dark region with a different solute element distribution. Some of the primary dendrites were diminished by competition with other dendrites. In addition, secondary dendrite arms could be seen in the upper regions (Fig. 5c), where solidification occurred at a lower cooling rate. The fragmentation of the solute segregation near the secondary dendrite arms is similar to that observed in the experimental melt pool shown in Figs. 2e and 2f, and the secondary dendrite arms are suggested to have appeared at the center of the melt region. Fig. 6 shows the PDASs measured from the MPF simulation models, compared to the experimental PDASs measured by the cross-sectional SEM observation of the laser-melted regions (Fig. 2). The PDAS obtained by the MPF simulation become larger as the solidification progress. Ghosh et al. [21] evident by the phase-field method that the PDAS decreases as the cooling rate increases under the rapid cooling conditions obtained by the finite element analysis. In this study, the cooling rate was decreased as the interface approached the center of the melt region (Fig. 4a), and the trends in PDAS changes with respect to cooling rate is same as the reported trend [21]. The simulated trends of the PDAS with the position in the melt pool agreed well with the experimental trends. However, all PDASs in the simulation were larger than those observed in the experiment at the same positions. Ode et al. [42] reported that PDAS differences between 2D and 3D MPF simulations can be represented by PDAS2D = 1.12 × PDAS3D owing to differences in the effects of the interfacial energy and diffusivity. We also performed 2D and 3D MPF simulations under the solidification conditions of G = 1.94 × 10K m-1 and R = 0.82 m s-1 (Fig. S1), and found that the PDAS from the 2D MPF simulation was 1.26 times larger than that from the 3D simulation. Therefore, the cell structure obtained by the CtFD simulation coupled with the 2D MPF simulation agreed well with the experimental results over the entire melt pool region considering the dimensional effects.

Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Fig. 7b1 and 7c1 show the concentration profiles of the solidified model along the growth direction indicated by dashed lines in Fig. 7a. The differences in concentrations from the alloy composition are also shown in Fig. 7b2 and 7c2. Cr, Mo, C, Mn, and W were segregated to the interdendritic regions, while Si, Fe, and Co were depressed. The solute segregation behavior agrees with the experimentally observation [43] and the prediction by the Scheil-Gulliver simulation [19]. Segregation occurred to the highest degree in Mo, while the ratio of segregation to the alloy composition was remarkable in C. The concentration fluctuations correlated with the position in the melt pool and decreased at the center of the melt pool, which was suggested to correspond to the lower cooling rate in this region. Conversely, droplets that appeared between secondary dendrite arms in the upper regions of the simulation domain exhibited a locally high segregation of solute elements, with the same amount of segregation as that at the bottom of the melt pool.

Fig. 7

3.4. Remelting and resolidification simulation

The solidified model was subjected to remelting and resolidification conditions by shifting the temperature profile upward by 60 µm to reveal the effect of reheating on the solute segregation behavior. Figs. 8a and 8b shows the simulation domains of the HX model after resolidification, colored by phase and Mo concentration. The magnified MPF models during the resolidification of the regions indicated by rectangles in Figs. 8a and 8b are also shown as Figs. 8c and 8d. Dendrites grew from the bottom of the remelted region, with the segregation of solute elements occurring in the interdendritic regions. The entire domain become the FCC phase after the resolidification, as shown in Fig. 8a. The bottom of the remelted regions exhibited a different microstructure, and Mo was depressed at the remelted regions, rather than the interdendritic regions. The different solute segregation behavior [44] and the microstructure formation [45] at the melt pool boundary is also observed in LPBF manufactured 316 L stainless steel. We found that this microstructure was formed by further remelting during the resolidification process, which is shown in Fig. 9. Here, the solidified HX model was heated, and the interdendritic regions were preferentially melted while concentration fluctuations were maintained (Fig. 9a1 and 9a2). Subsequently, planer interface growth occurs near the melt pool boundary where the solidification rate is almost zero, and the dendrites outside of the boundary are grown epitaxially (Fig. 9b1 and 9b2). However, these remelted again because of the temperature rise (Fig. 9c1 and 9c2, and the temperature-time profile shown in Fig. 9e). The remelted regions then cooled and solidified with the abnormal solute segregations (Fig. 9d1 and 9d2). Then, dendrite grows from amplified fluctuations under the solidification rate larger than the criterion of constitutional supercooling (Fig. 9d1, 9d2, and Fig. 8d). It has been reported [46][47] that temperature rising owning to latent heat affects microstructure formation: phase-field simulations of a Ni–Al binary alloy suggest that the release of latent heat during solidification increases the average temperature of the system [46] and strongly influences the solidification conditions [47]. In this study, the release of latent heat during solidification is considered in CtFD simulations for calculating the temperature distribution, and the temperature increase is suggested to have also occurred due to the release of latent heat.

Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Fig. 10b1 and 10c1 show the solute element concentration line profiles of the resolidified model along the growth direction indicated by dashed lines in Fig. 10a. Fig. 10b2 and 10c2 show the corresponding differences in concentration from the alloy composition. The segregation behavior of solute elements at the interdendritic regions (Fig. 10b1 and 10b2) was the same as that in the solidified model (Figs. 7b1 and 7b2). Here, Cr, Mo, C, Mn, and W were segregated to the interdendritic regions, while Si, Fe, and Co were depressed. However, the concentration fluctuations at the interdendritic regions were larger than those in the solidified model. Moreover, the segregation of the outside of the melt pool, i.e., the heat-affected zone, was remarkable throughout remelting and resolidification. Different segregation behaviors were observed in the re-remelted region: Mo, Si, Mn, and W were segregated, while Ni, Fe, and Co were depressed. These solute segregations caused by remelting are expected to heavily influence the crack behavior.

Fig. 10

4. Discussion

4.1. Effect of segregation of solute elements on liquation cracking susceptibility

Strong solute segregation was observed between the interdendritic regions of the solidified alloy (Fig. 7). In addition, the solute segregation behavior was significantly affected by remelting and resolidification and varied across the alloy. Solute segregation can be categorized by the regions shown in Fig. 11a1–11a4, namely the cell boundary (Fig. 11a1), interior of the melt-pool boundary (Fig. 11a2), re-remelted regions (Fig. 11a3), and heat-affected regions (Fig. 11a4). The concentration profiles of these regions are shown in Fig. 11b1–11b4. Solute segregation was the highest in the cell boundary region. The solute segregation in the heat-affected region was almost the same as that in the cell boundary region, but seemed to have been attenuated by reheating during remelting and resolidification. The interior of the melt-pool boundary region also had the same tendency for solute segregation. However, the amount of Cr segregation was smaller than that of Mo. A decrease in the Cr concentration was also mitigated, and the concentration remained the same as that in the alloy composition. Fig. 11c1–11c4 show the chemical potentials of the solute elements for the FCC phase at 1073 K calculated using the compositions of those interfacial regions. All the interfacial regions showed non-constant chemical potentials for each element along the perpendicular direction, but the fluctuations of the chemical potentials differed by the type of interfaces. In particular, the fluctuation of the chemical potential of C at the cell boundary region was the largest, suggesting it can be relaxed easily by heat treatment. On the other hand, the fluctuations of the other elements in all the regions were small. The solute segregations are most likely to remain after the heat treatment and are supposed to affect the cracking susceptibilities.

Fig. 11

The solidus temperatures TS, the difference between the liquidus and solidus temperatures (i.e., the brittle temperature range (BTR)), and the fractions of the equilibrium precipitate phases at 1073 K of the interfacial regions were calculated as the liquation, solidification, and ductility dip cracking susceptibilities, respectively. At the cell boundary (Fig. 12a1), interior of the melt-pool boundary (Fig. 12a1), and heat-affected regions (Fig. 12a1), the internal and interfacial regions exhibited higher and lower TS compared to that of the alloy composition, respectively. The lowest Ts was obtained with the composition at the cell boundary region, which is the largest solute-segregated region. It has been suggested that strong segregations of solute elements in LPBF lead to liquation cracks [16]. This study also supports this suggestion, and liquation cracks are more likely to occur at the interfacial regions indicated by predicting the solute segregation behavior using the MPF model. Additionally, the BTRs of the cell boundary, interior of the melt-pool boundary, and heat-affected regions were wider at the interdendritic regions, and solidification cracks were also likely to occur in these regions. Moreover, within the solute segregation regions, the fraction of the precipitate phases in these interfacial regions was larger than that calculated using the alloy composition (Fig. 12c1, 12c2, and 12c4). This indicates that ductility dip cracking is also likely to occur at the cell boundary, interior of the melt-pool boundary, and in heat-affected regions. Contrarily, we found that the re-remelted region exhibited a higher TS and smaller BTR even in the interfacial region (Fig. 12a3 and 12b3), where the solute segregation behavior was different from that of the other regions. In addition, the re-remelting region exhibited less precipitation compared with the other segregated regions (Fig. 12c3). The re-remelting caused by the latent heat can attenuate solute segregation, prevent Ts from decreasing, decrease the BTR, and decrease the amount of precipitate phases. Alloys with a large amount of latent heat are expected to increase the re-remelting region, thereby decreasing the susceptibility to liquation and ductility dip cracks due to solute element segregation. This can be a guide for designing alloys for the LPBF process. As mentioned in Section 3.4, the microstructure [45] and the solute segregation behavior [44] at the melt pool boundary of LPBF-manufactured 316 L stainless steel are observed, and they are different from that of the interdendritic regions. Experimental observations of the solute segregation behavior in the LPBF-fabricated Ni-based alloys are currently underway.

Fig. 12

4.2. Applicability of the conventional MPF simulation to microstructure formation under LPBF

As the solidification growth rate increases, segregation coefficients approach 1, and the fluctuation of the solid/liquid interface is suppressed by the interfacial tension. The interface growth occurs in a flat fashion instead of having a cellular morphology at a velocity above the absolute stability limit, Ras, predicted by the Mullins-Sekerka theory [29]Ras = (ΔT0 DL) / (k Γ) where ΔT0DLk, and Γ are the difference between the liquidus and solidus temperatures, equilibrium segregation coefficient, the diffusivity of liquid, and the Gibbs-Thomson coefficient, respectively.

The Ras of HX was calculated using the equation and the thermodynamic parameters obtained by the TCNI9 thermodynamic database [39]. The calculated Ras of HX was 3.9 m s-1 and is ten times larger than that of the Ni–Nb alloy (approximately 0.4 m s-1[20]. The HX alloy was solidified under R values in the range of 8.2 × 10−2–6.3 × 10−1 m s-1. The theoretically calculated criterion is larger than the evaluated R, and is in agreement with the experiment in which dendritic growth is observed in the melt pool (Fig. 5). In contrast, Karayagiz et al. [20] reported that the R of the Ni–Nb binary alloy under LPBF was as high as approximately 2 m s-1, and planar interface growth was observed to be predominant under the high-growth-rate conditions. These experimentally observed microstructures agree well with the prediction by the Mullins-Sekerka theory about the relationship between the morphology and solidification rates.

In this study, the solidification microstructure formed by the laser-beam irradiation of an HX multicomponent Ni-based superalloy was reproduced by a conventional MPF simulation, in which the system was assumed to be in a quasi-equilibrium condition. Boussinot et al. [24] also suggested that the conventional phase-field model can be applied to simulate the microstructure of an IN718 multicomponent Ni-based superalloy in LPBF. In contrast, Kagayaski et al. [20] suggested that the conventional MPF simulation cannot be applied to the solidification of the Ni-Nb binary alloy system and that the finite interface dissipation model proposed by Steinbach et al. [48][49] is necessary to simulate the high solidification rates observed in LPBF. The difference in the applicability of the conventional MPF method to HX and Ni–Nb binary alloys is presumed to arise from the differences in the non-equilibrium degree of these systems under the high solidification rates of LPBF. The results suggest that Ras can be used as a simple index to apply the conventional MPF model for solidification in LPBF. Solidification becomes a non-equilibrium process as the solidification rate approaches the limit of absolute stability, Ras. In this study, the solidification of the HX multicomponent system occurred under a relatively low solidification rate compared to Ras, and the microstructure of the conventional MPF model was successfully reproduced in the physical experiment. However, note that the limit of absolute stability predicted by the Mullins-Sekerka theory was originally proposed for solidification in a binary alloy system, and further investigation is required to consider its applicability to multicomponent alloy systems. Moreover, the fast solidification, such as in the LPBF process, causes segregation coefficient approaching a value of 1 [20][21][25] corresponds to a diffusion length that is on the order of the atomic interface thickness. When the segregation coefficient approaches 1, solute undercooling disappears; hence, there is no driving force to amplify fluctuations regardless of whether interfacial tension is present. This phenomenon should be further investigated in future studies.

5. Conclusions

We simulated solute segregation in a multicomponent HX alloy under the LPBF process by an MPF simulation using the temperature distributions obtained by a CtFD simulation. We set the parameters of the CtFD simulation to match the melt pool shape formed in the laser-irradiation experiment and found that solidification occurred under high cooling rates of up to 1.6 × 10K s-1.

MPF simulations using the temperature distributions from CtFD simulation could reproduce the experimentally observed PDAS and revealed that significant solute segregation occurred at the interdendritic regions. Equilibrium thermodynamic calculations using the alloy compositions of the segregated regions when considering crack sensitivities suggested a decrease in the solidus temperature and an increase in the amount of carbide precipitation, thereby increasing the susceptibility to liquation and ductility dip cracks in these regions. Notably, these changes were suppressed at the melt-pool boundary region, where re-remelting occurred during the stacking of the layer above. This effect can be used to achieve a novel in-process segregation attenuation.

Our study revealed that a conventional MPF simulation weakly coupled with a CtFD simulation can be used to study the solidification of multicomponent alloys in LPBF, contrary to the cases of binary alloys investigated in previous studies. We discussed the applicability of the conventional MPF model to the LPBF process in terms of the limit of absolute stability, Ras, and suggested that alloys with a high limit velocity, i.e., multicomponent alloys, can be simulated using the conventional MPF model even under the high solidification velocity conditions of LPBF.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Masayuki Okugawa: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Takayoshi Nakano: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Yuichiro Koizumi: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Sukeharu Nomoto: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Investigation. Makoto Watanabe: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Katsuhiko Sawaizumi: Validation, Software, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Kenji Saito: Visualization, Validation, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Haruki Yoshima: Visualization, Validation, Software, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper

Acknowledgments

This work was partly supported by the Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP), “Materials Integration for Revolutionary Design System of Structural Materials,” (funding agency: The Japan Science and Technology Agency), by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 21H05018 and 21H05193, and by CREST Nanomechanics: Elucidation of macroscale mechanical properties based on understanding nanoscale dynamics for innovative mechanical materials (Grant Number: JPMJCR2194) from the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST). The authors would like to thank Mr. H. Kawabata and Mr. K. Kimura for their technical support with the sample preparations and laser beam irradiation experiments.

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Download : Download Word document (654KB)

Supplementary material.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

References

Figure 5. Simulation of the molten pool under low-speed scanning (1.06 m/s). (a) Sequential solidification of the molten pool at the end of the melt track for laser powers of 190 and 340 W, respectively. (b) Recoil pressure on the molten pool at the keyhole for laser powers of 190 and 340 W, respectively. (c) The force diagram of the melt at the back of the keyhole at t = 750 μs in case B. (d) Temperature gradient at the solid–liquid interface of the molten pool at the moment the laser is deactivated in case A. (e) Temperature gradient at the solid–liquid interface of the molten pool at the moment the laser is deactivated in case B.

Revealing formation mechanism of end of processdepression in laser powder bed fusion by multiphysics meso-scale simulation

다중물리 메조 규모 시뮬레이션을 통해 레이저 분말층 융합에서 공정 종료의 함몰 형성 메커니즘 공개

Haodong Chen a,b, Xin Lin a,b,c, Yajing Sund, Shuhao Wanga,b, Kunpeng Zhu a,b,c and Binbin Dana,b

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2024.2326599

ABSTRACT

Unintended end-of-process depression (EOPD) commonly occurs in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), leading to poor surface quality and lower fatigue strength, especially for many implants. In this study, a high-fidelity multi-physics meso-scale simulation model is developed to uncover the forming mechanism of this defect. A defect-process map of the EOPD phenomenon is obtained using this simulation model. It is found that the EOPD formation mechanisms are different under distinct regions of process parameters. At low scanning speeds in keyhole mode, the long-lasting recoil pressure and the large temperature gradient easily induce EOPD. While at high scanning speeds in keyhole mode, the shallow molten pool morphology and the large solidification rate allow the keyhole to evolve into an EOPD quickly. Nevertheless, in the conduction mode, the Marangoni effects along with a faster solidification rate induce EOPD. Finally, a ‘step’ variable power strategy is proposed to optimise the EOPD defects for the case with high volumetric energy density at low scanning speeds. This work provides a profound understanding and valuable insights into the quality control of LPBF fabrication.

의도하지 않은 공정 종료 후 함몰(EOPD)은 LPBF(레이저 분말층 융합)에서 흔히 발생하며, 특히 많은 임플란트의 경우 표면 품질이 떨어지고 피로 강도가 낮아집니다. 본 연구에서는 이 결함의 형성 메커니즘을 밝히기 위해 충실도가 높은 다중 물리학 메조 규모 시뮬레이션 모델을 개발했습니다.

이 시뮬레이션 모델을 사용하여 EOPD 현상의 결함 프로세스 맵을 얻습니다. EOPD 형성 메커니즘은 공정 매개변수의 별개 영역에서 서로 다른 것으로 밝혀졌습니다.

키홀 모드의 낮은 스캔 속도에서는 오래 지속되는 반동 압력과 큰 온도 구배로 인해 EOPD가 쉽게 유발됩니다. 키홀 모드에서 높은 스캐닝 속도를 유지하는 동안 얕은 용융 풀 형태와 큰 응고 속도로 인해 키홀이 EOPD로 빠르게 진화할 수 있습니다.

그럼에도 불구하고 전도 모드에서는 더 빠른 응고 속도와 함께 마랑고니 효과가 EOPD를 유발합니다. 마지막으로, 낮은 스캐닝 속도에서 높은 체적 에너지 밀도를 갖는 경우에 대해 EOPD 결함을 최적화하기 위한 ‘단계’ 가변 전력 전략이 제안되었습니다.

이 작업은 LPBF 제조의 품질 관리에 대한 심오한 이해와 귀중한 통찰력을 제공합니다.

Figure 5. Simulation of the molten pool under low-speed scanning (1.06 m/s). (a) Sequential solidification of the molten pool at the
end of the melt track for laser powers of 190 and 340 W, respectively. (b) Recoil pressure on the molten pool at the keyhole for laser
powers of 190 and 340 W, respectively. (c) The force diagram of the melt at the back of the keyhole at t = 750 μs in case B. (d) Temperature gradient at the solid–liquid interface of the molten pool at the moment the laser is deactivated in case A. (e) Temperature
gradient at the solid–liquid interface of the molten pool at the moment the laser is deactivated in case B.
Figure 5. Simulation of the molten pool under low-speed scanning (1.06 m/s). (a) Sequential solidification of the molten pool at the end of the melt track for laser powers of 190 and 340 W, respectively. (b) Recoil pressure on the molten pool at the keyhole for laser powers of 190 and 340 W, respectively. (c) The force diagram of the melt at the back of the keyhole at t = 750 μs in case B. (d) Temperature gradient at the solid–liquid interface of the molten pool at the moment the laser is deactivated in case A. (e) Temperature gradient at the solid–liquid interface of the molten pool at the moment the laser is deactivated in case B.

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Schematic diagram of HP-LPBF melting process.

Modeling and numerical studies of high-precision laser powder bed fusion

Yi Wei ;Genyu Chen;Nengru Tao;Wei Zhou
https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0191504

In order to comprehensively reveal the evolutionary dynamics of the molten pool and the state of motion of the fluid during the high-precision laser powder bed fusion (HP-LPBF) process, this study aims to deeply investigate the specific manifestations of the multiphase flow, solidification phenomena, and heat transfer during the process by means of numerical simulation methods. Numerical simulation models of SS316L single-layer HP-LPBF formation with single and double tracks were constructed using the discrete element method and the computational fluid dynamics method. The effects of various factors such as Marangoni convection, surface tension, vapor recoil, gravity, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and evaporative heat dissipation on the heat and mass transfer in the molten pool have been paid attention to during the model construction process. The results show that the molten pool exhibits a “comet” shape, in which the temperature gradient at the front end of the pool is significantly larger than that at the tail end, with the highest temperature gradient up to 1.69 × 108 K/s. It is also found that the depth of the second track is larger than that of the first one, and the process parameter window has been determined preliminarily. In addition, the application of HP-LPBF technology helps to reduce the surface roughness and minimize the forming size.

Topics

Heat transferNonequilibrium thermodynamicsSolidification processComputer simulationDiscrete element methodLasersMass transferFluid mechanicsComputational fluid dynamicsMultiphase flows

I. INTRODUCTION

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) has become a research hotspot in the field of additive manufacturing of metals due to its advantages of high-dimensional accuracy, good surface quality, high density, and high material utilization.1,2 With the rapid development of electronics, medical, automotive, biotechnology, energy, communication, and optics, the demand for microfabrication technology is increasing day by day.3 High-precision laser powder bed fusion (HP-LPBF) is one of the key manufacturing technologies for tiny parts in the fields of electronics, medical, automotive, biotechnology, energy, communication, and optics because of its process characteristics such as small focal spot diameter, small powder particle size, and thin powder layup layer thickness.4–13 Compared with LPBF, HP-LPBF has the significant advantages of smaller focal spot diameter, smaller powder particle size, and thinner layer thickness. These advantages make HP-LPBF perform better in producing micro-fine parts, high surface quality, and parts with excellent mechanical properties.

HP-LPBF is in the exploratory stage, and researchers have already done some exploratory studies on the focal spot diameter, the amount of defocusing, and the powder particle size. In order to explore the influence of changing the laser focal spot diameter on the LPBF process characteristics of the law, Wildman et al.14 studied five groups of different focal spot diameter LPBF forming 316L stainless steel (SS316L) processing effect, the smallest focal spot diameter of 26 μm, and the results confirm that changing the focal spot diameter can be achieved to achieve the energy control, so as to control the quality of forming. Subsequently, Mclouth et al.15 proposed the laser out-of-focus amount (focal spot diameter) parameter, which characterizes the distance between the forming plane and the laser focal plane. The laser energy density was controlled by varying the defocusing amount while keeping the laser parameters constant. Sample preparation at different focal positions was investigated, and their microstructures were characterized. The results show that the samples at the focal plane have finer microstructure than those away from the focal plane, which is the effect of higher power density and smaller focal spot diameter. In order to explore the influence of changing the powder particle size on the characteristics of the LPBF process, Qian et al.16 carried out single-track scanning simulations on powder beds with average powder particle sizes of 70 and 40 μm, respectively, and the results showed that the melt tracks sizes were close to each other under the same process parameters for the two particle-size distributions and that the molten pool of powder beds with small particles was more elongated and the edges of the melt tracks were relatively flat. In order to explore the superiority of HP-LPBF technology, Xu et al.17 conducted a comparative analysis of HP-LPBF and conventional LPBF of SS316L. The results showed that the average surface roughness of the top surface after forming by HP-LPBF could reach 3.40 μm. Once again, it was verified that HP-LPBF had higher forming quality than conventional LPBF. On this basis, Wei et al.6 comparatively analyzed the effects of different laser focal spot diameters on different powder particle sizes formed by LPBF. The results showed that the smaller the laser focal spot diameter, the fewer the defects on the top and side surfaces. The above research results confirm that reducing the laser focal spot diameter can obtain higher energy density and thus better forming quality.

LPBF involves a variety of complex systems and mechanisms, and the final quality of the part is influenced by a large number of process parameters.18–24 Some research results have shown that there are more than 50 factors affecting the quality of the specimen. The influencing factors are mainly categorized into three main groups: (1) laser parameters, (2) powder parameters, and (3) equipment parameters, which interact with each other to determine the final specimen quality. With the continuous development of technologies such as computational materials science and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), the method of studying the influence of different factors on the forming quality of LPBF forming process has been shifted from time-consuming and laborious experimental characterization to the use of numerical simulation methods. As a result, more and more researchers are adopting this approach for their studies. Currently, numerical simulation studies on LPBF are mainly focused on the exploration of molten pool, temperature distribution, and residual stresses.

  1. Finite element simulation based on continuum mechanics and free surface fluid flow modeling based on fluid dynamics are two common approaches to study the behavior of LPBF molten pool.25–28 Finite element simulation focuses on the temperature and thermal stress fields, treats the powder bed as a continuum, and determines the molten pool size by plotting the elemental temperature above the melting point. In contrast, fluid dynamics modeling can simulate the 2D or 3D morphology of the metal powder pile and obtain the powder size and distribution by certain algorithms.29 The flow in the molten pool is mainly affected by recoil pressure and the Marangoni effect. By simulating the molten pool formation, it is possible to predict defects, molten pool shape, and flow characteristics, as well as the effect of process parameters on the molten pool geometry.30–34 In addition, other researchers have been conducted to optimize the laser processing parameters through different simulation methods and experimental data.35–46 Crystal growth during solidification is studied to further understand the effect of laser parameters on dendritic morphology and solute segregation.47–54 A multi-scale system has been developed to describe the fused deposition process during 3D printing, which is combined with the conductive heat transfer model and the dendritic solidification model.55,56
  2. Relevant scholars have adopted various different methods for simulation, such as sequential coupling theory,57 Lagrangian and Eulerian thermal models,58 birth–death element method,25 and finite element method,59 in order to reveal the physical phenomena of the laser melting process and optimize the process parameters. Luo et al.60 compared the LPBF temperature field and molten pool under double ellipsoidal and Gaussian heat sources by ANSYS APDL and found that the diffusion of the laser energy in the powder significantly affects the molten pool size and the temperature field.
  3. The thermal stresses obtained from the simulation correlate with the actual cracks,61 and local preheating can effectively reduce the residual stresses.62 A three-dimensional thermodynamic finite element model investigated the temperature and stress variations during laser-assisted fabrication and found that powder-to-solid conversion increases the temperature gradient, stresses, and warpage.63 Other scholars have predicted residual stresses and part deflection for LPBF specimens and investigated the effects of deposition pattern, heat, laser power, and scanning strategy on residual stresses, noting that high-temperature gradients lead to higher residual stresses.64–67 

In short, the process of LPBF forming SS316L is extremely complex and usually involves drastic multi-scale physicochemical changes that will only take place on a very small scale. Existing literature employs DEM-based mesoscopic-scale numerical simulations to investigate the effects of process parameters on the molten pool dynamics of LPBF-formed SS316L. However, a few studies have been reported on the key mechanisms of heating and solidification, spatter, and convective behavior of the molten pool of HP-LPBF-formed SS316L with small laser focal spot diameters. In this paper, the geometrical properties of coarse and fine powder particles under three-dimensional conditions were first calculated using DEM. Then, numerical simulation models for single-track and double-track cases in the single-layer HP-LPBF forming SS316L process were developed at mesoscopic scale using the CFD method. The flow genesis of the melt in the single-track and double-track molten pools is discussed, and their 3D morphology and dimensional characteristics are discussed. In addition, the effects of laser process parameters, powder particle size, and laser focal spot diameter on the temperature field, characterization information, and defects in the molten pool are discussed.

II. MODELING

A. 3D powder bed modeling

HP-LPBF is an advanced processing technique for preparing target parts layer by layer stacking, the process of which involves repetitive spreading and melting of powders. In this process, both the powder spreading and the morphology of the powder bed are closely related to the results of the subsequent melting process, while the melted surface also affects the uniform distribution of the next layer of powder. For this reason, this chapter focuses on the modeling of the physical action during the powder spreading process and the theory of DEM to establish the numerical model of the powder bed, so as to lay a solid foundation for the accuracy of volume of fluid (VOF) and CFD.

1. DEM

DEM is a numerical technique for calculating the interaction of a large number of particles, which calculates the forces and motions of the spheres by considering each powder sphere as an independent unit. The motion of the powder particles follows the laws of classical Newtonian mechanics, including translational and rotational,38,68–70 which are expressed as follows:����¨=���+∑��ij,

(1)����¨=∑�(�ij×�ij),

(2)

where �� is the mass of unit particle i in kg, ��¨ is the advective acceleration in m/s2, And g is the gravitational acceleration in m/s2. �ij is the force in contact with the neighboring particle � in N. �� is the rotational inertia of the unit particle � in kg · m2. ��¨ is the unit particle � angular acceleration in rad/s2. �ij is the vector pointing from unit particle � to the contact point of neighboring particle �⁠.

Equations (1) and (2) can be used to calculate the velocity and angular velocity variations of powder particles to determine their positions and velocities. A three-dimensional powder bed model of SS316L was developed using DEM. The powder particles are assumed to be perfect spheres, and the substrate and walls are assumed to be rigid. To describe the contact between the powder particles and between the particles and the substrate, a non-slip Hertz–Mindlin nonlinear spring-damping model71 was used with the following expression:�hz=��������+��[(�����ij−�eff����)−(�����+�eff����)],

(3)

where �hz is the force calculated using the Hertzian in M. �� and �� are the radius of unit particles � and � in m, respectively. �� is the overlap size of the two powder particles in m. ��⁠, �� are the elastic constants in the normal and tangential directions, respectively. �ij is the unit vector connecting the centerlines of the two powder particles. �eff is the effective mass of the two powder particles in kg. �� and �� are the viscoelastic damping constants in the normal and tangential directions, respectively. �� and �� are the components of the relative velocities of the two powder particles. ��� is the displacement vector between two spherical particles. The schematic diagram of overlapping powder particles is shown in Fig. 1.

FIG. 1.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of overlapping powder particles.

Because the particle size of the powder used for HP-LPBF is much smaller than 100 μm, the effect of van der Waals forces must be considered. Therefore, the cohesive force �jkr of the Hertz–Mindlin model was used instead of van der Waals forces,72 with the following expression:�jkr=−4��0�*�1.5+4�*3�*�3,

(4)1�*=(1−��2)��+(1−��2)��,

(5)1�*=1��+1��,

(6)

where �* is the equivalent Young’s modulus in GPa; �* is the equivalent particle radius in m; �0 is the surface energy of the powder particles in J/m2; α is the contact radius in m; �� and �� are the Young’s modulus of the unit particles � and �⁠, respectively, in GPa; and �� and �� are the Poisson’s ratio of the unit particles � and �⁠, respectively.

2. Model building

Figure 2 shows a 3D powder bed model generated using DEM with a coarse powder geometry of 1000 × 400 × 30 μm3. The powder layer thickness is 30 μm, and the powder bed porosity is 40%. The average particle size of this spherical powder is 31.7 μm and is normally distributed in the range of 15–53 μm. The geometry of the fine powder was 1000 × 400 × 20 μm3, with a layer thickness of 20 μm, and the powder bed porosity of 40%. The average particle size of this spherical powder is 11.5 μm and is normally distributed in the range of 5–25 μm. After the 3D powder bed model is generated, it needs to be imported into the CFD simulation software for calculation, and the imported geometric model is shown in Fig. 3. This geometric model is mainly composed of three parts: protective gas, powder bed, and substrate. Under the premise of ensuring the accuracy of the calculation, the mesh size is set to 3 μm, and the total number of coarse powder meshes is 1 704 940. The total number of fine powder meshes is 3 982 250.

FIG. 2.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Three-dimensional powder bed model: (a) coarse powder, (b) fine powder.

FIG. 3.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Geometric modeling of the powder bed computational domain: (a) coarse powder, (b) fine powder.

B. Modeling of fluid mechanics simulation

In order to solve the flow, melting, and solidification problems involved in HP-LPBF molten pool, the study must follow the three governing equations of conservation of mass, conservation of energy, and conservation of momentum.73 The VOF method, which is the most widely used in fluid dynamics, is used to solve the molten pool dynamics model.

1. VOF

VOF is a method for tracking the free interface between the gas and liquid phases on the molten pool surface. The core idea of the method is to define a volume fraction function F within each grid, indicating the proportion of the grid space occupied by the material, 0 ≤ F ≤ 1 in Fig. 4. Specifically, when F = 0, the grid is empty and belongs to the gas-phase region; when F = 1, the grid is completely filled with material and belongs to the liquid-phase region; and when 0 < F < 1, the grid contains free surfaces and belongs to the mixed region. The direction normal to the free surface is the direction of the fastest change in the volume fraction F (the direction of the gradient of the volume fraction), and the direction of the gradient of the volume fraction can be calculated from the values of the volume fractions in the neighboring grids.74 The equations controlling the VOF are expressed as follows:𝛻����+�⋅(��→)=0,

(7)

where t is the time in s and �→ is the liquid velocity in m/s.

FIG. 4.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of VOF.

The material parameters of the mixing zone are altered due to the inclusion of both the gas and liquid phases. Therefore, in order to represent the density of the mixing zone, the average density �¯ is used, which is expressed as follows:72�¯=(1−�1)�gas+�1�metal,

(8)

where �1 is the proportion of liquid phase, �gas is the density of protective gas in kg/m3, and �metal is the density of metal in kg/m3.

2. Control equations and boundary conditions

Figure 5 is a schematic diagram of the HP-LPBF melting process. First, the laser light strikes a localized area of the material and rapidly heats up the area. Next, the energy absorbed in the region is diffused through a variety of pathways (heat conduction, heat convection, and surface radiation), and this process triggers complex phase transition phenomena (melting, evaporation, and solidification). In metals undergoing melting, the driving forces include surface tension and the Marangoni effect, recoil due to evaporation, and buoyancy due to gravity and uneven density. The above physical phenomena interact with each other and do not occur independently.

FIG. 5.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of HP-LPBF melting process.

  1. Laser heat sourceThe Gaussian surface heat source model is used as the laser heat source model with the following expression:�=2�0����2exp(−2�12��2),(9)where � is the heat flow density in W/m2, �0 is the absorption rate of SS316L, �� is the radius of the laser focal spot in m, and �1 is the radial distance from the center of the laser focal spot in m. The laser focal spot can be used for a wide range of applications.
  2. Energy absorptionThe formula for calculating the laser absorption �0 of SS316L is as follows:�0=0.365(�0[1+�0(�−20)]/�)0.5,(10)where �0 is the direct current resistivity of SS316L at 20 °C in Ω m, �0 is the resistance temperature coefficient in ppm/°C, � is the temperature in °C, and � is the laser wavelength in m.
  3. Heat transferThe basic principle of heat transfer is conservation of energy, which is expressed as follows:𝛻𝛻𝛻�(��)��+�·(��→�)=�·(�0����)+��,(11)where � is the density of liquid phase SS316L in kg/m3, �� is the specific heat capacity of SS316L in J/(kg K), 𝛻� is the gradient operator, t is the time in s, T is the temperature in K, 𝛻�� is the temperature gradient, �→ is the velocity vector, �0 is the coefficient of thermal conduction of SS316L in W/(m K), and  �� is the thermal energy dissipation term in the molten pool.
  4. Molten pool flowThe following three conditions need to be satisfied for the molten pool to flow:
    • Conservation of mass with the following expression:𝛻�·(��→)=0.(12)
    • Conservation of momentum (Navier–Stokes equation) with the following expression:𝛻𝛻𝛻𝛻���→��+�(�→·�)�→=�·[−pI+�(��→+(��→)�)]+�,(13)where � is the pressure in Pa exerted on the liquid phase SS316L microelement, � is the unit matrix, � is the fluid viscosity in N s/m2, and � is the volumetric force (gravity, atmospheric pressure, surface tension, vapor recoil, and the Marangoni effect).
    • Conservation of energy, see Eq. (11)
  5. Surface tension and the Marangoni effectThe effect of temperature on the surface tension coefficient is considered and set as a linear relationship with the following expression:�=�0−��dT(�−��),(14)where � is the surface tension of the molten pool at temperature T in N/m, �� is the melting temperature of SS316L in K, �0 is the surface tension of the molten pool at temperature �� in Pa, and σdσ/ dT is the surface tension temperature coefficient in N/(m K).In general, surface tension decreases with increasing temperature. A temperature gradient causes a gradient in surface tension that drives the liquid to flow, known as the Marangoni effect.
  6. Metal vapor recoilAt higher input energy densities, the maximum temperature of the molten pool surface reaches the evaporation temperature of the material, and a gasification recoil pressure occurs vertically downward toward the molten pool surface, which will be the dominant driving force for the molten pool flow.75 The expression is as follows:��=0.54�� exp ���−���0���,(15)where �� is the gasification recoil pressure in Pa, �� is the ambient pressure in kPa, �� is the latent heat of evaporation in J/kg, �0 is the gas constant in J/(mol K), T is the surface temperature of the molten pool in K, and Te is the evaporation temperature in K.
  7. Solid–liquid–gas phase transitionWhen the laser hits the powder layer, the powder goes through three stages: heating, melting, and solidification. During the solidification phase, mutual transformations between solid, liquid, and gaseous states occur. At this point, the latent heat of phase transition absorbed or released during the phase transition needs to be considered.68 The phase transition is represented based on the relationship between energy and temperature with the following expression:�=�����,(�<��),�(��)+�−����−����,(��<�<��)�(��)+(�−��)����,(��<�),,(16)where �� and �� are solid and liquid phase density, respectively, of SS316L in kg/m3. �� and �� unit volume of solid and liquid phase-specific heat capacity, respectively, of SS316L in J/(kg K). �� and ��⁠, respectively, are the solidification temperature and melting temperature of SS316L in K. �� is the latent heat of the phase transition of SS316L melting in J/kg.

3. Assumptions

The CFD model was computed using the commercial software package FLOW-3D.76 In order to simplify the calculation and solution process while ensuring the accuracy of the results, the model makes the following assumptions:

  1. It is assumed that the effects of thermal stress and material solid-phase thermal expansion on the calculation results are negligible.
  2. The molten pool flow is assumed to be a Newtonian incompressible laminar flow, while the effects of liquid thermal expansion and density on the results are neglected.
  3. It is assumed that the surface tension can be simplified to an equivalent pressure acting on the free surface of the molten pool, and the effect of chemical composition on the results is negligible.
  4. Neglecting the effect of the gas flow field on the molten pool.
  5. The mass loss due to evaporation of the liquid metal is not considered.
  6. The influence of the plasma effect of the molten metal on the calculation results is neglected.

It is worth noting that the formulation of assumptions requires a trade-off between accuracy and computational efficiency. In the above models, some physical phenomena that have a small effect or high difficulty on the calculation results are simplified or ignored. Such simplifications make numerical simulations more efficient and computationally tractable, while still yielding accurate results.

4. Initial conditions

The preheating temperature of the substrate was set to 393 K, at which time all materials were in the solid state and the flow rate was zero.

5. Material parameters

The material used is SS316L and the relevant parameters required for numerical simulations are shown in Table I.46,77,78

TABLE I.

SS316L-related parameters.

PropertySymbolValue
Density of solid metal (kg/m3�metal 7980 
Solid phase line temperature (K) �� 1658 
Liquid phase line temperature (K) �� 1723 
Vaporization temperature (K) �� 3090 
Latent heat of melting (⁠ J/kg⁠) �� 2.60×105 
Latent heat of evaporation (⁠ J/kg⁠) �� 7.45×106 
Surface tension of liquid phase (N /m⁠) � 1.60 
Liquid metal viscosity (kg/m s) �� 6×10−3 
Gaseous metal viscosity (kg/m s) �gas 1.85×10−5 
Temperature coefficient of surface tension (N/m K) ��/�T 0.80×10−3 
Molar mass (⁠ kg/mol⁠) 0.05 593 
Emissivity � 0.26 
Laser absorption �0 0.35 
Ambient pressure (kPa) �� 101 325 
Ambient temperature (K) �0 300 
Stefan–Boltzmann constant (W/m2 K4� 5.67×10−8 
Thermal conductivity of metals (⁠ W/m K⁠) � 24.55 
Density of protective gas (kg/m3�gas 1.25 
Coefficient of thermal expansion (/K) �� 16×10−6 
Generalized gas constant (⁠ J/mol K⁠) 8.314 

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

With the objective of studying in depth the evolutionary patterns of single-track and double-track molten pool development, detailed observations were made for certain specific locations in the model, as shown in Fig. 6. In this figure, P1 and P2 represent the longitudinal tangents to the centers of the two melt tracks in the XZ plane, while L1 is the transverse profile in the YZ plane. The scanning direction is positive and negative along the X axis. Points A and B are the locations of the centers of the molten pool of the first and second melt tracks, respectively (x = 1.995 × 10−4, y = 5 × 10−7, and z = −4.85 × 10−5).

FIG. 6.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of observation position.

A. Single-track simulation

A series of single-track molten pool simulation experiments were carried out in order to investigate the influence law of laser power as well as scanning speed on the HP-LPBF process. Figure 7 demonstrates the evolution of the 3D morphology and temperature field of the single-track molten pool in the time period of 50–500 μs under a laser power of 100 W and a scanning speed of 800 mm/s. The powder bed is in the natural cooling state. When t = 50 μs, the powder is heated by the laser heat and rapidly melts and settles to form the initial molten pool. This process is accompanied by partial melting of the substrate and solidification together with the melted powder. The molten pool rapidly expands with increasing width, depth, length, and temperature, as shown in Fig. 7(a). When t = 150 μs, the molten pool expands more obviously, and the temperature starts to transfer to the surrounding area, forming a heat-affected zone. At this point, the width of the molten pool tends to stabilize, and the temperature in the center of the molten pool has reached its peak and remains largely stable. However, the phenomenon of molten pool spatter was also observed in this process, as shown in Fig. 7(b). As time advances, when t = 300 μs, solidification begins to occur at the tail of the molten pool, and tiny ripples are produced on the solidified surface. This is due to the fact that the melt flows toward the region with large temperature gradient under the influence of Marangoni convection and solidifies together with the melt at the end of the bath. At this point, the temperature gradient at the front of the bath is significantly larger than at the end. While the width of the molten pool was gradually reduced, the shape of the molten pool was gradually changed to a “comet” shape. In addition, a slight depression was observed at the top of the bath because the peak temperature at the surface of the bath reached the evaporation temperature, which resulted in a recoil pressure perpendicular to the surface of the bath downward, creating a depressed region. As the laser focal spot moves and is paired with the Marangoni convection of the melt, these recessed areas will be filled in as shown in Fig. 7(c). It has been shown that the depressed regions are the result of the coupled effect of Marangoni convection, recoil pressure, and surface tension.79 By t = 500 μs, the width and height of the molten pool stabilize and show a “comet” shape in Fig. 7(d).

FIG. 7.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Single-track molten pool process: (a) t = 50  ��⁠, (b) t = 150  ��⁠, (c) t = 300  ��⁠, (d) t = 500  ��⁠.

Figure 8 depicts the velocity vector diagram of the P1 profile in a single-track molten pool, the length of the arrows represents the magnitude of the velocity, and the maximum velocity is about 2.36 m/s. When t = 50 μs, the molten pool takes shape, and the velocities at the two ends of the pool are the largest. The variation of the velocities at the front end is especially more significant in Fig. 8(a). As the time advances to t = 150 μs, the molten pool expands rapidly, in which the velocity at the tail increases and changes more significantly, while the velocity at the front is relatively small. At this stage, the melt moves backward from the center of the molten pool, which in turn expands the molten pool area. The melt at the back end of the molten pool center flows backward along the edge of the molten pool surface and then converges along the edge of the molten pool to the bottom center, rising to form a closed loop. Similarly, a similar closed loop is formed at the front end of the center of the bath, but with a shorter path. However, a large portion of the melt in the center of the closed loop formed at the front end of the bath is in a nearly stationary state. The main cause of this melt flow phenomenon is the effect of temperature gradient and surface tension (the Marangoni effect), as shown in Figs. 8(b) and 8(e). This dynamic behavior of the melt tends to form an “elliptical” pool. At t = 300 μs, the tendency of the above two melt flows to close the loop is more prominent and faster in Fig. 8(c). When t = 500 μs, the velocity vector of the molten pool shows a stable trend, and the closed loop of melt flow also remains stable. With the gradual laser focal spot movement, the melt is gradually solidified at its tail, and finally, a continuous and stable single track is formed in Fig. 8(d).

FIG. 8.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Vector plot of single-track molten pool velocity in XZ longitudinal section: (a) t = 50  ��⁠, (b) t = 150  ��⁠, (c) t = 300  ��⁠, (d) t = 500  ��⁠, (e) molten pool flow.

In order to explore in depth the transient evolution of the molten pool, the evolution of the single-track temperature field and the melt flow was monitored in the YZ cross section. Figure 9(a) shows the state of the powder bed at the initial moment. When t = 250 μs, the laser focal spot acts on the powder bed and the powder starts to melt and gradually collects in the molten pool. At this time, the substrate will also start to melt, and the melt flow mainly moves in the downward and outward directions and the velocity is maximum at the edges in Fig. 9(b). When t = 300 μs, the width and depth of the molten pool increase due to the recoil pressure. At this time, the melt flows more slowly at the center, but the direction of motion is still downward in Fig. 9(c). When t = 350 μs, the width and depth of the molten pool further increase, at which time the intensity of the melt flow reaches its peak and the direction of motion remains the same in Fig. 9(d). When t = 400 μs, the melt starts to move upward, and the surrounding powder or molten material gradually fills up, causing the surface of the molten pool to begin to flatten. At this time, the maximum velocity of the melt is at the center of the bath, while the velocity at the edge is close to zero, and the edge of the melt starts to solidify in Fig. 9(e). When t = 450 μs, the melt continues to move upward, forming a convex surface of the melt track. However, the melt movement slows down, as shown in Fig. 9(f). When t = 500 μs, the melt further moves upward and its speed gradually becomes smaller. At the same time, the melt solidifies further, as shown in Fig. 9(g). When t = 550 μs, the melt track is basically formed into a single track with a similar “mountain” shape. At this stage, the velocity is close to zero only at the center of the molten pool, and the flow behavior of the melt is poor in Fig. 9(h). At t = 600 μs, the melt stops moving and solidification is rapidly completed. Up to this point, a single track is formed in Fig. 9(i). During the laser action on the powder bed, the substrate melts and combines with the molten state powder. The powder-to-powder fusion is like the convergence of water droplets, which are rapidly fused by surface tension. However, the fusion between the molten state powder and the substrate occurs driven by surface tension, and the molten powder around the molten pool is pulled toward the substrate (a wetting effect occurs), which ultimately results in the formation of a monolithic whole.38,80,81

FIG. 9.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Evolution of single-track molten pool temperature and melt flow in the YZ cross section: (a) t = 0  ��⁠, (b) t = 250  ��⁠, (c) t = 300  ��⁠, (d) t = 350  ��⁠, (e) t = 400  ��⁠, (f) t = 450  ��⁠, (g) t = 500  ��⁠, (h) t = 550  ��⁠, (i) t = 600  ��⁠.

The wetting ability between the liquid metal and the solid substrate in the molten pool directly affects the degree of balling of the melt,82,83 and the wetting ability can be measured by the contact angle of a single track in Fig. 10. A smaller value of contact angle represents better wettability. The contact angle α can be calculated by�=�1−�22,

(17)

where �1 and �2 are the contact angles of the left and right regions, respectively.

FIG. 10.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic of contact angle.

Relevant studies have confirmed that the wettability is better at a contact angle α around or below 40°.84 After measurement, a single-track contact angle α of about 33° was obtained under this process parameter, which further confirms the good wettability.

B. Double-track simulation

In order to deeply investigate the influence of hatch spacing on the characteristics of the HP-LPBF process, a series of double-track molten pool simulation experiments were systematically carried out. Figure 11 shows in detail the dynamic changes of the 3D morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool in the time period of 2050–2500 μs under the conditions of laser power of 100 W, scanning speed of 800 mm/s, and hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. By comparing the study with Fig. 7, it is observed that the basic characteristics of the 3D morphology and temperature field of the second track are similar to those of the first track. However, there are subtle differences between them. The first track exhibits a basically symmetric shape, but the second track morphology shows a slight deviation influenced by the difference in thermal diffusion rate between the solidified metal and the powder. Otherwise, the other characteristic information is almost the same as that of the first track. Figure 12 shows the velocity vector plot of the P2 profile in the double-track molten pool, with a maximum velocity of about 2.63 m/s. The melt dynamics at both ends of the pool are more stable at t = 2050 μs, where the maximum rate of the second track is only 1/3 of that of the first one. Other than that, the rest of the information is almost no significant difference from the characteristic information of the first track. Figure 13 demonstrates a detailed observation of the double-track temperature field and melts flow in the YZ cross section, and a comparative study with Fig. 9 reveals that the width of the second track is slightly wider. In addition, after the melt direction shifts from bottom to top, the first track undergoes four time periods (50 μs) to reach full solidification, while the second track takes five time periods. This is due to the presence of significant heat buildup in the powder bed after the forming of the first track, resulting in a longer dynamic time of the melt and an increased molten pool lifetime. In conclusion, the level of specimen forming can be significantly optimized by adjusting the laser power and hatch spacing.

FIG. 11.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Double-track molten pool process: (a) t = 2050  ��⁠, (b) t = 2150  ��⁠, (c) t = 2300  ��⁠, (d) t = 2500  ��⁠.

FIG. 12.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Vector plot of double-track molten pool velocity in XZ longitudinal section: (a) t = 2050  ��⁠, (b) t = 2150  ��⁠, (c) t = 2300  ��⁠, (d) t = 2500  ��⁠.

FIG. 13.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Evolution of double-track molten pool temperature and melt flow in the YZ cross section: (a) t = 2250  ��⁠, (b) t = 2300  ��⁠, (c) t = 2350  ��⁠, (d) t = 2400  ��⁠, (e) t = 2450  ��⁠, (f) t = 2500  ��⁠, (g) t = 2550  ��⁠, (h) t = 2600  ��⁠, (i) t = 2650  ��⁠.

In order to quantitatively detect the molten pool dimensions as well as the remolten region dimensions, the molten pool characterization information in Fig. 14 is constructed by drawing the boundary on the YZ cross section based on the isothermal surface of the liquid phase line. It can be observed that the heights of the first track and second track are basically the same, but the depth of the second track increases relative to the first track. The molten pool width is mainly positively correlated with the laser power as well as the scanning speed (the laser line energy density �⁠). However, the remelted zone width is negatively correlated with the hatch spacing (the overlapping ratio). Overall, the forming quality of the specimens can be directly influenced by adjusting the laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing.

FIG. 14.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Double-track molten pool characterization information on YZ cross section.

In order to study the variation rule of the temperature in the center of the molten pool with time, Fig. 15 demonstrates the temperature variation curves with time for two reference points, A and B. Among them, the red dotted line indicates the liquid phase line temperature of SS316L. From the figure, it can be seen that the maximum temperature at the center of the molten pool in the first track is lower than that in the second track, which is mainly due to the heat accumulation generated after passing through the first track. The maximum temperature gradient was calculated to be 1.69 × 108 K/s. When the laser scanned the first track, the temperature in the center of the molten pool of the second track increased slightly. Similarly, when the laser scanned the second track, a similar situation existed in the first track. Since the temperature gradient in the second track is larger than that in the first track, the residence time of the liquid phase in the molten pool of the first track is longer than that of the second track.

FIG. 15.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Temperature profiles as a function of time for two reference points A and B.

C. Simulation analysis of molten pool under different process parameters

In order to deeply investigate the effects of various process parameters on the mesoscopic-scale temperature field, molten pool characteristic information and defects of HP-LPBF, numerical simulation experiments on mesoscopic-scale laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing of double-track molten pools were carried out.

1. Laser power

Figure 16 shows the effects of different laser power on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool at a scanning speed of 800 mm/s and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. When P = 50 W, a smaller molten pool is formed due to the lower heat generated by the Gaussian light source per unit time. This leads to a smaller track width, which results in adjacent track not lapping properly and the presence of a large number of unmelted powder particles, resulting in an increase in the number of defects, such as pores in the specimen. The surface of the track is relatively flat, and the depth is small. In addition, the temperature gradient before and after the molten pool was large, and the depression location appeared at the biased front end in Fig. 16(a). When P = 100 W, the surface of the track is flat and smooth with excellent lap. Due to the Marangoni effect, the velocity field of the molten pool is in the form of “vortex,” and the melt has good fluidity, and the maximum velocity reaches 2.15 m/s in Fig. 16(b). When P = 200 W, the heat generated by the Gaussian light source per unit time is too large, resulting in the melt rapidly reaching the evaporation temperature, generating a huge recoil pressure, forming a large molten pool, and the surface of the track is obviously raised. The melt movement is intense, especially the closed loop at the center end of the molten pool. At this time, the depth and width of the molten pool are large, leading to the expansion of the remolten region and the increased chance of the appearance of porosity defects in Fig. 16(c). The results show that at low laser power, the surface tension in the molten pool is dominant. At high laser power, recoil pressure is its main role.

FIG. 16.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool under different laser powers: (a) P = 50 W, (b) P = 100 W, (c) P = 200 W.

Table II shows the effect of different laser powers on the characteristic information of the double-track molten pool at a scanning speed of 800 mm/s and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. The negative overlapping ratio in the table indicates that the melt tracks are not lapped, and 26/29 indicates the melt depth of the first track/second track. It can be seen that with the increase in laser power, the melt depth, melt width, melt height, and remelted zone show a gradual increase. At the same time, the overlapping ratio also increases. Especially in the process of laser power from 50 to 200 W, the melting depth and melting width increased the most, which increased nearly 2 and 1.5 times, respectively. Meanwhile, the overlapping ratio also increases with the increase in laser power, which indicates that the melting and fusion of materials are better at high laser power. On the other hand, the dimensions of the molten pool did not change uniformly with the change of laser power. Specifically, the depth-to-width ratio of the molten pool increased from about 0.30 to 0.39 during the increase from 50 to 120 W, which further indicates that the effective heat transfer in the vertical direction is greater than that in the horizontal direction with the increase in laser power. This dimensional response to laser power is mainly affected by the recoil pressure and also by the difference in the densification degree between the powder layer and the metal substrate. In addition, according to the experimental results, the contact angle shows a tendency to increase and then decrease during the process of laser power increase, and always stays within the range of less than 33°. Therefore, in practical applications, it is necessary to select the appropriate laser power according to the specific needs in order to achieve the best processing results.

TABLE II.

Double-track molten pool characterization information at different laser powers.

Laser power (W)Depth (μm)Width (μm)Height (μm)Remolten region (μm)Overlapping ratio (%)Contact angle (°)
50 16 54 11 −10 23 
100 26/29 74 14 18 23.33 33 
200 37/45 116 21 52 93.33 28 

2. Scanning speed

Figure 17 demonstrates the effect of different scanning speeds on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool at a laser power of 100 W and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. With the gradual increase in scanning speed, the surface morphology of the molten pool evolves from circular to elliptical. When � = 200 mm/s, the slow scanning speed causes the material to absorb too much heat, which is very easy to trigger the overburning phenomenon. At this point, the molten pool is larger and the surface morphology is uneven. This situation is consistent with the previously discussed scenario with high laser power in Fig. 17(a). However, when � = 1600 mm/s, the scanning speed is too fast, resulting in the material not being able to absorb sufficient heat, which triggers the powder particles that fail to melt completely to have a direct effect on the bonding of the melt to the substrate. At this time, the molten pool volume is relatively small and the neighboring melt track cannot lap properly. This result is consistent with the previously discussed case of low laser power in Fig. 17(b). Overall, the ratio of the laser power to the scanning speed (the line energy density �⁠) has a direct effect on the temperature field and surface morphology of the molten pool.

FIG. 17.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool under different scanning speed: (a)  � = 200 mm/s, (b)  � = 1600 mm/s.

Table III shows the effects of different scanning speed on the characteristic information of the double-track molten pool under the condition of laser power of 100 W and hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. It can be seen that the scanning speed has a significant effect on the melt depth, melt width, melt height, remolten region, and overlapping ratio. With the increase in scanning speed, the melt depth, melt width, melt height, remelted zone, and overlapping ratio show a gradual decreasing trend. Among them, the melt depth and melt width decreased faster, while the melt height and remolten region decreased relatively slowly. In addition, when the scanning speed was increased from 200 to 800 mm/s, the decreasing speeds of melt depth and melt width were significantly accelerated, while the decreasing speeds of overlapping ratio were relatively slow. When the scanning speed was further increased to 1600 mm/s, the decreasing speeds of melt depth and melt width were further accelerated, and the un-lapped condition of the melt channel also appeared. In addition, the contact angle increases and then decreases with the scanning speed, and both are lower than 33°. Therefore, when selecting the scanning speed, it is necessary to make reasonable trade-offs according to the specific situation, and take into account the factors of melt depth, melt width, melt height, remolten region, and overlapping ratio, in order to achieve the best processing results.

TABLE III.

Double-track molten pool characterization information at different scanning speeds.

Scanning speed (mm/s)Depth (μm)Width (μm)Height (μm)Remolten region (μm)Overlapping ratio (%)Contact angle (°)
200 55/68 182 19/32 124 203.33 22 
1600 13 50 11 −16.67 31 

3. Hatch spacing

Figure 18 shows the effect of different hatch spacing on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool under the condition of laser power of 100 W and scanning speed of 800 mm/s. The surface morphology and temperature field of the first track and second track are basically the same, but slightly different. The first track shows a basically symmetric morphology along the scanning direction, while the second track shows a slight offset due to the difference in the heat transfer rate between the solidified material and the powder particles. When the hatch spacing is too small, the overlapping ratio increases and the probability of defects caused by remelting phenomenon grows. When the hatch spacing is too large, the neighboring melt track cannot overlap properly, and the powder particles are not completely melted, leading to an increase in the number of holes. In conclusion, the ratio of the line energy density � to the hatch spacing (the volume energy density E) has a significant effect on the temperature field and surface morphology of the molten pool.

FIG. 18.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool under different hatch spacings: (a) H = 0.03 mm, (b) H = 0.12 mm.

Table IV shows the effects of different hatch spacing on the characteristic information of the double-track molten pool under the condition of laser power of 100 W and scanning speed of 800 mm/s. It can be seen that the hatch spacing has little effect on the melt depth, melt width, and melt height, but has some effect on the remolten region. With the gradual expansion of hatch spacing, the remolten region shows a gradual decrease. At the same time, the overlapping ratio also decreased with the increase in hatch spacing. In addition, it is observed that the contact angle shows a tendency to increase and then remain stable when the hatch spacing increases, which has a more limited effect on it. Therefore, trade-offs and decisions need to be made on a case-by-case basis when selecting the hatch spacing.

TABLE IV.

Double-track molten pool characterization information at different hatch spacings.

Hatch spacing (mm)Depth (μm)Width (μm)Height (μm)Remolten region (μm)Overlapping ratio (%)Contact angle (°)
0.03 25/27 82 14 59 173.33 30 
0.12 26 78 14 −35 33 

In summary, the laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing have a significant effect on the formation of the molten pool, and the correct selection of these three process parameters is crucial to ensure the forming quality. In addition, the melt depth of the second track is slightly larger than that of the first track at higher line energy density � and volume energy density E. This is mainly due to the fact that a large amount of heat accumulation is generated after the first track, forming a larger molten pool volume, which leads to an increase in the melt depth.

D. Simulation analysis of molten pool with powder particle size and laser focal spot diameter

Figure 19 demonstrates the effect of different powder particle sizes and laser focal spot diameters on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool under a laser power of 100 W, a scanning speed of 800 mm/s, and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. In the process of melting coarse powder with small laser focal spot diameter, the laser energy cannot completely melt the larger powder particles, resulting in their partial melting and further generating excessive pore defects. The larger powder particles tend to generate zigzag molten pool edges, which cause an increase in the roughness of the melt track surface. In addition, the molten pool is also prone to generate the present spatter phenomenon, which can directly affect the quality of forming. The volume of the formed molten pool is relatively small, while the melt depth, melt width, and melt height are all smaller relative to the fine powder in Fig. 19(a). In the process of melting fine powders with a large laser focal spot diameter, the laser energy is able to melt the fine powder particles sufficiently, even to the point of overmelting. This results in a large number of fine spatters being generated at the edge of the molten pool, which causes porosity defects in the melt track in Fig. 19(b). In addition, the maximum velocity of the molten pool is larger for large powder particle sizes compared to small powder particle sizes, which indicates that the temperature gradient in the molten pool is larger for large powder particle sizes and the melt motion is more intense. However, the size of the laser focal spot diameter has a relatively small effect on the melt motion. However, a larger focal spot diameter induces a larger melt volume with greater depth, width, and height. In conclusion, a small powder size helps to reduce the surface roughness of the specimen, and a small laser spot diameter reduces the minimum forming size of a single track.

FIG. 19.

VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool with different powder particle size and laser focal spot diameter: (a) focal spot = 25 μm, coarse powder, (b) focal spot = 80 μm, fine powder.

Table V shows the maximum temperature gradient at the reference point for different powder sizes and laser focal spot diameters. As can be seen from the table, the maximum temperature gradient is lower than that of HP-LPBF for both coarse powders with a small laser spot diameter and fine powders with a large spot diameter, a phenomenon that leads to an increase in the heat transfer rate of HP-LPBF, which in turn leads to a corresponding increase in the cooling rate and, ultimately, to the formation of finer microstructures.

TABLE V.

Maximum temperature gradient at the reference point for different powder particle sizes and laser focal spot diameters.

Laser power (W)Scanning speed (mm/s)Hatch spacing (mm)Average powder size (μm)Laser focal spot diameter (μm)Maximum temperature gradient (×107 K/s)
100 800 0.06 31.7 25 7.89 
11.5 80 7.11 

IV. CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the geometrical characteristics of 3D coarse and fine powder particles were first calculated using DEM and then numerical simulations of single track and double track in the process of forming SS316L from monolayer HP-LPBF at mesoscopic scale were developed using CFD method. The effects of Marangoni convection, surface tension, recoil pressure, gravity, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and evaporative heat dissipation on the heat and mass transfer in the molten pool were considered in this model. The effects of laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing on the dynamics of the single-track and double-track molten pools, as well as on other characteristic information, were investigated. The effects of the powder particle size on the molten pool were investigated comparatively with the laser focal spot diameter. The main conclusions are as follows:

  1. The results show that the temperature gradient at the front of the molten pool is significantly larger than that at the tail, and the molten pool exhibits a “comet” morphology. At the top of the molten pool, there is a slightly concave region, which is the result of the coupling of Marangoni convection, recoil pressure, and surface tension. The melt flow forms two closed loops, which are mainly influenced by temperature gradients and surface tension. This special dynamic behavior of the melt tends to form an “elliptical” molten pool and an almost “mountain” shape in single-track forming.
  2. The basic characteristics of the three-dimensional morphology and temperature field of the second track are similar to those of the first track, but there are subtle differences. The first track exhibits a basically symmetrical shape; however, due to the difference in thermal diffusion rates between the solidified metal and the powder, a slight asymmetry in the molten pool morphology of the second track occurs. After forming through the first track, there is a significant heat buildup in the powder bed, resulting in a longer dynamic time of the melt, which increases the life of the molten pool. The heights of the first track and second track remained essentially the same, but the depth of the second track was greater relative to the first track. In addition, the maximum temperature gradient was 1.69 × 108 K/s during HP-LPBF forming.
  3. At low laser power, the surface tension in the molten pool plays a dominant role. At high laser power, recoil pressure becomes the main influencing factor. With the increase of laser power, the effective heat transfer in the vertical direction is superior to that in the horizontal direction. With the gradual increase of scanning speed, the surface morphology of the molten pool evolves from circular to elliptical. In addition, the scanning speed has a significant effect on the melt depth, melt width, melt height, remolten region, and overlapping ratio. Too large or too small hatch spacing will lead to remelting or non-lap phenomenon, which in turn causes the formation of defects.
  4. When using a small laser focal spot diameter, it is difficult to completely melt large powder particle sizes, resulting in partial melting and excessive porosity generation. At the same time, large powder particles produce curved edges of the molten pool, resulting in increased surface roughness of the melt track. In addition, spatter occurs, which directly affects the forming quality. At small focal spot diameters, the molten pool volume is relatively small, and the melt depth, the melt width, and the melt height are correspondingly small. Taken together, the small powder particle size helps to reduce surface roughness, while the small spot diameter reduces the forming size.

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Predicting solid-state phase transformations during metal additive manufacturing: A case study on electron-beam powder bed fusion of Inconel-738

Predicting solid-state phase transformations during metal additive manufacturing: A case study on electron-beam powder bed fusion of Inconel-738

금속 적층 제조 중 고체 상 변형 예측: Inconel-738의 전자빔 분말층 융합에 대한 사례 연구

Nana Kwabena Adomako a, Nima Haghdadi a, James F.L. Dingle bc, Ernst Kozeschnik d, Xiaozhou Liao bc, Simon P. Ringer bc, Sophie Primig a

Abstract

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) has now become the perhaps most desirable technique for producing complex shaped engineering parts. However, to truly take advantage of its capabilities, advanced control of AM microstructures and properties is required, and this is often enabled via modeling. The current work presents a computational modeling approach to studying the solid-state phase transformation kinetics and the microstructural evolution during AM. Our approach combines thermal and thermo-kinetic modelling. A semi-analytical heat transfer model is employed to simulate the thermal history throughout AM builds. Thermal profiles of individual layers are then used as input for the MatCalc thermo-kinetic software. The microstructural evolution (e.g., fractions, morphology, and composition of individual phases) for any region of interest throughout the build is predicted by MatCalc. The simulation is applied to an IN738 part produced by electron beam powder bed fusion to provide insights into how γ′ precipitates evolve during thermal cycling. Our simulations show qualitative agreement with our experimental results in predicting the size distribution of γ′ along the build height, its multimodal size character, as well as the volume fraction of MC carbides. Our findings indicate that our method is suitable for a range of AM processes and alloys, to predict and engineer their microstructures and properties.

Graphical Abstract

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Keywords

Additive manufacturing, Simulation, Thermal cycles, γ′ phase, IN738

1. Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM) is an advanced manufacturing method that enables engineering parts with intricate shapes to be fabricated with high efficiency and minimal materials waste. AM involves building up 3D components layer-by-layer from feedstocks such as powder [1]. Various alloys, including steel, Ti, Al, and Ni-based superalloys, have been produced using different AM techniques. These techniques include directed energy deposition (DED), electron- and laser powder bed fusion (E-PBF and L-PBF), and have found applications in a variety of industries such as aerospace and power generation [2][3][4]. Despite the growing interest, certain challenges limit broader applications of AM fabricated components in these industries and others. One of such limitations is obtaining a suitable and reproducible microstructure that offers the desired mechanical properties consistently. In fact, the AM as-built microstructure is highly complex and considerably distinctive from its conventionally processed counterparts owing to the complicated thermal cycles arising from the deposition of several layers upon each other [5][6].

Several studies have reported that the solid-state phases and solidification microstructure of AM processed alloys such as CMSX-4, CoCr [7][8], Ti-6Al-4V [9][10][11]IN738 [6]304L stainless steel [12], and IN718 [13][14] exhibit considerable variations along the build direction. For instance, references [9][10] have reported that there is a variation in the distribution of α and β phases along the build direction in Ti-alloys. Similarly, the microstructure of an L-PBF fabricated martensitic steel exhibits variations in the fraction of martensite [15]. Furthermore, some of the present authors and others [6][16][17][18][19][20] have recently reviewed and reported that there is a difference in the morphology and fraction of nanoscale precipitates as a function of build height in Ni-based superalloys. These non-uniformities in the as-built microstructure result in an undesired heterogeneity in mechanical and other important properties such as corrosion and oxidation [19][21][22][23]. To obtain the desired microstructure and properties, additional processing treatments are utilized, but this incurs extra costs and may lead to precipitation of detrimental phases and grain coarsening. Therefore, a through-process understanding of the microstructure evolution under repeated heating and cooling is now needed to further advance 3D printed microstructure and property control.

It is now commonly understood that the microstructure evolution during printing is complex, and most AM studies concentrate on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the final build only. Post-printing studies of microstructure characteristics at room temperature miss crucial information on how they evolve. In-situ measurements and modelling approaches are required to better understand the complex microstructural evolution under repeated heating and cooling. Most in-situ measurements in AM focus on monitoring the microstructural changes, such as phase transformations and melt pool dynamics during fabrication using X-ray scattering and high-speed X-ray imaging [24][25][26][27]. For example, Zhao et al. [25] measured the rate of solidification and described the α/β phase transformation during L-PBF of Ti-6Al-4V in-situ. Also, Wahlmann et al. [21] recently used an L-PBF machine coupled with X-ray scattering to investigate the changes in CMSX-4 phase during successive melting processes. Although these techniques provide significant understanding of the basic principles of AM, they are not widely accessible. This is due to the great cost of the instrument, competitive application process, and complexities in terms of the experimental set-up, data collection, and analysis [26][28].

Computational modeling techniques are promising and more widely accessible tools that enable advanced understanding, prediction, and engineering of microstructures and properties during AM. So far, the majority of computational studies have concentrated on physics based process models for metal AM, with the goal of predicting the temperature profile, heat transfer, powder dynamics, and defect formation (e.g., porosity) [29][30]. In recent times, there have been efforts in modeling of the AM microstructure evolution using approaches such as phase-field [31], Monte Carlo (MC) [32], and cellular automata (CA) [33], coupled with finite element simulations for temperature profiles. However, these techniques are often restricted to simulating the evolution of solidification microstructures (e.g., grain and dendrite structure) and defects (e.g., porosity). For example, Zinovieva et al. [33] predicted the grain structure of L-PBF Ti-6Al-4V using finite difference and cellular automata methods. However, studies on the computational modelling of the solid-state phase transformations, which largely determine the resulting properties, remain limited. This can be attributed to the multi-component and multi-phase nature of most engineering alloys in AM, along with the complex transformation kinetics during thermal cycling. This kind of research involves predictions of the thermal cycle in AM builds, and connecting it to essential thermodynamic and kinetic data as inputs for the model. Based on the information provided, the thermokinetic model predicts the history of solid-state phase microstructure evolution during deposition as output. For example, a multi-phase, multi-component mean-field model has been developed to simulate the intermetallic precipitation kinetics in IN718 [34] and IN625 [35] during AM. Also, Basoalto et al. [36] employed a computational framework to examine the contrasting distributions of process-induced microvoids and precipitates in two Ni-based superalloys, namely IN718 and CM247LC. Furthermore, McNamara et al. [37] established a computational model based on the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami model for non-isothermal conditions to predict solid-state phase transformation kinetics in L-PBF IN718 and DED Ti-6Al-4V. These models successfully predicted the size and volume fraction of individual phases and captured the repeated nucleation and dissolution of precipitates that occur during AM.

In the current study, we propose a modeling approach with appreciably short computational time to investigate the detailed microstructural evolution during metal AM. This may include obtaining more detailed information on the morphologies of phases, such as size distribution, phase fraction, dissolution and nucleation kinetics, as well as chemistry during thermal cycling and final cooling to room temperature. We utilize the combination of the MatCalc thermo-kinetic simulator and a semi-analytical heat conduction model. MatCalc is a software suite for simulation of phase transformations, microstructure evolution and certain mechanical properties in engineering alloys. It has successfully been employed to simulate solid-state phase transformations in Ni-based superalloys [38][39], steels [40], and Al alloys [41] during complex thermo-mechanical processes. MatCalc uses the classical nucleation theory as well as the so-called Svoboda-Fischer-Fratzl-Kozeschnik (SFFK) growth model as the basis for simulating precipitation kinetics [42]. Although MatCalc was originally developed for conventional thermo-mechanical processes, we will show that it is also applicable for AM if the detailed time-temperature profile of the AM build is known. The semi-analytical heat transfer code developed by Stump and Plotkowski [43] is used to simulate these profile throughout the AM build.

1.1. Application to IN738

Inconel-738 (IN738) is a precipitation hardening Ni-based superalloy mainly employed in high-temperature components, e.g. in gas turbines and aero-engines owing to its exceptional mechanical properties at temperatures up to 980 °C, coupled with high resistance to oxidation and corrosion [44]. Its superior high-temperature strength (∼1090 MPa tensile strength) is provided by the L12 ordered Ni3(Al,Ti) γ′ phase that precipitates in a face-centered cubic (FCC) γ matrix [45][46]. Despite offering great properties, IN738, like most superalloys with high γ′ fractions, is challenging to process owing to its propensity to hot cracking [47][48]. Further, machining of such alloys is challenging because of their high strength and work-hardening rates. It is therefore difficult to fabricate complex INC738 parts using traditional manufacturing techniques like casting, welding, and forging.

The emergence of AM has now made it possible to fabricate such parts from IN738 and other superalloys. Some of the current authors’ recent research successfully applied E-PBF to fabricate defect-free IN738 containing γ′ throughout the build [16][17]. The precipitated γ′ were heterogeneously distributed. In particular, Haghdadi et al. [16] studied the origin of the multimodal size distribution of γ′, while Lim et al. [17] investigated the gradient in γ′ character with build height and its correlation to mechanical properties. Based on these results, the present study aims to extend the understanding of the complex and site-specific microstructural evolution in E-PBF IN738 by using a computational modelling approach. New experimental evidence (e.g., micrographs not published previously) is presented here to support the computational results.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials preparation

IN738 Ni-based superalloy (59.61Ni-8.48Co-7.00Al-17.47Cr-3.96Ti-1.01Mo-0.81W-0.56Ta-0.49Nb-0.47C-0.09Zr-0.05B, at%) gas-atomized powder was used as feedstock. The powders, with average size of 60 ± 7 µm, were manufactured by Praxair and distributed by Astro Alloys Inc. An Arcam Q10 machine by GE Additive with an acceleration voltage of 60 kV was used to fabricate a 15 × 15 × 25 mm3 block (XYZ, Z: build direction) on a 316 stainless steel substrate. The block was 3D-printed using a ‘random’ spot melt pattern. The random spot melt pattern involves randomly selecting points in any given layer, with an equal chance of each point being melted. Each spot melt experienced a dwell time of 0.3 ms, and the layer thickness was 50 µm. Some of the current authors have previously characterized the microstructure of the very same and similar builds in more detail [16][17]. A preheat temperature of ∼1000 °C was set and kept during printing to reduce temperature gradients and, in turn, thermal stresses [49][50][51]. Following printing, the build was separated from the substrate through electrical discharge machining. It should be noted that this sample was simultaneously printed with the one used in [17] during the same build process and on the same build plate, under identical conditions.

2.2. Microstructural characterization

The printed sample was longitudinally cut in the direction of the build using a Struers Accutom-50, ground, and then polished to 0.25 µm suspension via standard techniques. The polished x-z surface was electropolished and etched using Struers A2 solution (perchloric acid in ethanol). Specimens for image analysis were polished using a 0.06 µm colloidal silica. Microstructure analyses were carried out across the height of the build using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with focus on the microstructure evolution (γ′ precipitates) in individual layers. The position of each layer being analyzed was determined by multiplying the layer number by the layer thickness (50 µm). It should be noted that the position of the first layer starts where the thermal profile is tracked (in this case, 2 mm from the bottom). SEM images were acquired using a JEOL 7001 field emission microscope. The brightness and contrast settings, acceleration voltage of 15 kV, working distance of 10 mm, and other SEM imaging parameters were all held constant for analysis of the entire build. The ImageJ software was used for automated image analysis to determine the phase fraction and size of γ′ precipitates and carbides. A 2-pixel radius Gaussian blur, following a greyscale thresholding and watershed segmentation was used [52]. Primary γ′ sizes (>50 nm), were measured using equivalent spherical diameters. The phase fractions were considered equal to the measured area fraction. Secondary γ′ particles (<50 nm) were not considered here. The γ′ size in the following refers to the diameter of a precipitate.

2.3. Hardness testing

A Struers DuraScan tester was utilized for Vickers hardness mapping on a polished x-z surface, from top to bottom under a maximum load of 100 mN and 10 s dwell time. 30 micro-indentations were performed per row. According to the ASTM standard [53], the indentations were sufficiently distant (∼500 µm) to assure that strain-hardened areas did not interfere with one another.

2.4. Computational simulation of E-PBF IN738 build

2.4.1. Thermal profile modeling

The thermal history was generated using the semi-analytical heat transfer code (also known as the 3DThesis code) developed by Stump and Plotkowski [43]. This code is an open-source C++ program which provides a way to quickly simulate the conductive heat transfer found in welding and AM. The key use case for the code is the simulation of larger domains than is practicable with Computational Fluid Dynamics/Finite Element Analysis programs like FLOW-3D AM. Although simulating conductive heat transfer will not be an appropriate simplification for some investigations (for example the modelling of keyholding or pore formation), the 3DThesis code does provide fast estimates of temperature, thermal gradient, and solidification rate which can be useful for elucidating microstructure formation across entire layers of an AM build. The mathematics involved in the code is as follows:

In transient thermal conduction during welding and AM, with uniform and constant thermophysical properties and without considering fluid convection and latent heat effects, energy conservation can be expressed as:(1)��∂�∂�=�∇2�+�̇where � is density, � specific heat, � temperature, � time, � thermal conductivity, and �̇ a volumetric heat source. By assuming a semi-infinite domain, Eq. 1 can be analytically solved. The solution for temperature at a given time (t) using a volumetric Gaussian heat source is presented as:(2)��,�,�,�−�0=33�����32∫0�1������exp−3�′�′2��+�′�′2��+�′�′2����′(3)and��=12��−�′+��2for�=�,�,�(4)and�′�′=�−���′Where � is the vector �,�,� and �� is the location of the heat source.

The numerical integration scheme used is an adaptive Gaussian quadrature method based on the following nondimensionalization:(5)�=��xy2�,�′=��xy2�′,�=��xy,�=��xy,�=��xy,�=���xy

A more detailed explanation of the mathematics can be found in reference [43].

The main source of the thermal cycling present within a powder-bed fusion process is the fusion of subsequent layers. Therefore, regions near the top of a build are expected to undergo fewer thermal cycles than those closer to the bottom. For this purpose, data from the single scan’s thermal influence on multiple layers was spliced to represent the thermal cycles experienced at a single location caused by multiple subsequent layers being fused.

The cross-sectional area simulated by this model was kept constant at 1 × 1 mm2, and the depth was dependent on the build location modelled with MatCalc. For a build location 2 mm from the bottom, the maximum number of layers to simulate is 460. Fig. 1a shows a stitched overview OM image of the entire build indicating the region where this thermal cycle is simulated and tracked. To increase similarity with the conditions of the physical build, each thermal history was constructed from the results of two simulations generated with different versions of a random scan path. The parameters used for these thermal simulations can be found in Table 1. It should be noted that the main purpose of the thermal profile modelling was to demonstrate how the conditions at different locations of the build change relative to each other. Accurately predicting the absolute temperature during the build would require validation via a temperature sensor measurement during the build process which is beyond the scope of the study. Nonetheless, to establish the viability of the heat source as a suitable approximation for this study, an additional sensitivity analysis was conducted. This analysis focused on the influence of energy input on γ′ precipitation behavior, the central aim of this paper. This was achieved by employing varying beam absorption energies (0.76, 0.82 – the values utilized in the simulation, and 0.9). The direct impact of beam absorption efficiency on energy input into the material was investigated. Specifically, the initial 20 layers of the build were simulated and subsequently compared to experimental data derived from SEM. While phase fractions were found to be consistent across all conditions, disparities emerged in the mean size of γ′ precipitates. An absorption efficiency of 0.76 yielded a mean size of approximately 70 nm. Conversely, absorption efficiencies of 0.82 and 0.9 exhibited remarkably similar mean sizes of around 130 nm, aligning closely with the outcomes of the experiments.

Fig. 1

Table 1. A list of parameters used in thermal simulation of E-PBF.

ParameterValue
Spatial resolution5 µm
Time step0.5 s
Beam diameter200 µm
Beam penetration depth1 µm
Beam power1200 W
Beam absorption efficiency0.82
Thermal conductivity25.37 W/(m⋅K)
Chamber temperature1000 °C
Specific heat711.756 J/(kg⋅K)
Density8110 kg/m3

2.4.2. Thermo-kinetic simulation

The numerical analyses of the evolution of precipitates was performed using MatCalc version 6.04 (rel 0.011). The thermodynamic (‘mc_ni.tdb’, version 2.034) and diffusion (‘mc_ni.ddb’, version 2.007) databases were used. MatCalc’s basic principles are elaborated as follows:

The nucleation kinetics of precipitates are computed using a computational technique based on a classical nucleation theory [54] that has been modified for systems with multiple components [42][55]. Accordingly, the transient nucleation rate (�), which expresses the rate at which nuclei are formed per unit volume and time, is calculated as:(6)�=�0��*∙�xp−�*�∙�∙exp−��where �0 denotes the number of active nucleation sites, �* the rate of atomic attachment, � the Boltzmann constant, � the temperature, �* the critical energy for nucleus formation, τ the incubation time, and t the time. � (Zeldovich factor) takes into consideration that thermal excitation destabilizes the nucleus as opposed to its inactive state [54]. Z is defined as follows:(7)�=−12�kT∂2∆�∂�2�*12where ∆� is the overall change in free energy due to the formation of a nucleus and n is the nucleus’ number of atoms. ∆�’s derivative is evaluated at n* (critical nucleus size). �* accounts for the long-range diffusion of atoms required for nucleation, provided that the matrix’ and precipitates’ composition differ. Svoboda et al. [42] developed an appropriate multi-component equation for �*, which is given by:(8)�*=4��*2�4�∑�=1��ki−�0�2�0��0�−1where �* denotes the critical radius for nucleation, � represents atomic distance, and � is the molar volume. �ki and �0� represent the concentration of elements in the precipitate and matrix, respectively. The parameter �0� denotes the rate of diffusion of the ith element within the matrix. The expression for the incubation time � is expressed as [54]:(9)�=12�*�2

and �*, which represents the critical energy for nucleation:(10)�*=16�3�3∆�vol2where � is the interfacial energy, and ∆Gvol the change in the volume free energy. The critical nucleus’ composition is similar to the γ′ phase’s equilibrium composition at the same temperature. � is computed based on the precipitate and matrix compositions, using a generalized nearest neighbor broken bond model, with the assumption of interfaces being planar, sharp, and coherent [56][57][58].

In Eq. 7, it is worth noting that �* represents the fundamental variable in the nucleation theory. It contains �3/∆�vol2 and is in the exponent of the nucleation rate. Therefore, even small variations in γ and/or ∆�vol can result in notable changes in �, especially if �* is in the order of �∙�. This is demonstrated in [38] for UDIMET 720 Li during continuous cooling, where these quantities change steadily during precipitation due to their dependence on matrix’ and precipitate’s temperature and composition. In the current work, these changes will be even more significant as the system is exposed to multiple cycles of rapid cooling and heating.

Once nucleated, the growth of a precipitate is assessed using the radius and composition evolution equations developed by Svoboda et al. [42] with a mean-field method that employs the thermodynamic extremal principle. The expression for the total Gibbs free energy of a thermodynamic system G, which consists of n components and m precipitates, is given as follows:(11)�=∑���0��0�+∑�=1�4���33��+∑�=1��ki�ki+∑�=1�4���2��.

The chemical potential of component � in the matrix is denoted as �0�(�=1,…,�), while the chemical potential of component � in the precipitate is represented by �ki(�=1,…,�,�=1,…,�). These chemical potentials are defined as functions of the concentrations �ki(�=1,…,�,�=1,…,�). The interface energy density is denoted as �, and �� incorporates the effects of elastic energy and plastic work resulting from the volume change of each precipitate.

Eq. (12) establishes that the total free energy of the system in its current state relies on the independent state variables: the sizes (radii) of the precipitates �� and the concentrations of each component �ki. The remaining variables can be determined by applying the law of mass conservation to each component �. This can be represented by the equation:(12)��=�0�+∑�=1�4���33�ki,

Furthermore, the global mass conservation can be expressed by equation:(13)�=∑�=1���When a thermodynamic system transitions to a more stable state, the energy difference between the initial and final stages is dissipated. This model considers three distinct forms of dissipation effects [42]. These include dissipations caused by the movement of interfaces, diffusion within the precipitate and diffusion within the matrix.

Consequently, �̇� (growth rate) and �̇ki (chemical composition’s rate of change) of the precipitate with index � are derived from the linear system of equation system:(14)�ij��=��where �� symbolizes the rates �̇� and �̇ki [42]. Index i contains variables for precipitate radius, chemical composition, and stoichiometric boundary conditions suggested by the precipitate’s crystal structure. Eq. (10) is computed separately for every precipitate �. For a more detailed description of the formulae for the coefficients �ij and �� employed in this work please refer to [59].

The MatCalc software was used to perform the numerical time integration of �̇� and �̇ki of precipitates based on the classical numerical method by Kampmann and Wagner [60]. Detailed information on this method can be found in [61]. Using this computational method, calculations for E-PBF thermal cycles (cyclic heating and cooling) were computed and compared to experimental data. The simulation took approximately 2–4 hrs to complete on a standard laptop.

3. Results

3.1. Microstructure

Fig. 1 displays a stitched overview image and selected SEM micrographs of various γ′ morphologies and carbides after observations of the X-Z surface of the build from the top to 2 mm above the bottom. Fig. 2 depicts a graph that charts the average size and phase fraction of the primary γ′, as it changes with distance from the top to the bottom of the build. The SEM micrographs show widespread primary γ′ precipitation throughout the entire build, with the size increasing in the top to bottom direction. Particularly, at the topmost height, representing the 460th layer (Z = 22.95 mm), as seen in Fig. 1b, the average size of γ′ is 110 ± 4 nm, exhibiting spherical shapes. This is representative of the microstructure after it solidifies and cools to room temperature, without experiencing additional thermal cycles. The γ′ size slightly increases to 147 ± 6 nm below this layer and remains constant until 0.4 mm (∼453rd layer) from the top. At this position, the microstructure still closely resembles that of the 460th layer. After the 453rd layer, the γ′ size grows rapidly to ∼503 ± 19 nm until reaching the 437th layer (1.2 mm from top). The γ′ particles here have a cuboidal shape, and a small fraction is coarser than 600 nm. γ′ continue to grow steadily from this position to the bottom (23 mm from the top). A small fraction of γ′ is > 800 nm.

Fig. 2

Besides primary γ′, secondary γ′ with sizes ranging from 5 to 50 nm were also found. These secondary γ′ precipitates, as seen in Fig. 1f, were present only in the bottom and middle regions. A detailed analysis of the multimodal size distribution of γ′ can be found in [16]. There is no significant variation in the phase fraction of the γ′ along the build. The phase fraction is ∼ 52%, as displayed in Fig. 2. It is worth mentioning that the total phase fraction of γ′ was estimated based on the primary γ′ phase fraction because of the small size of secondary γ′. Spherical MC carbides with sizes ranging from 50 to 400 nm and a phase fraction of 0.8% were also observed throughout the build. The carbides are the light grey precipitates in Fig. 1g. The light grey shade of carbides in the SEM images is due to their composition and crystal structure [52]. These carbides are not visible in Fig. 1b-e because they were dissolved during electro-etching carried out after electropolishing. In Fig. 1g, however, the sample was examined directly after electropolishing, without electro-etching.

Table 2 shows the nominal and measured composition of γ′ precipitates throughout the build by atom probe microscopy as determined in our previous study [17]. No build height-dependent composition difference was observed in either of the γ′ precipitate populations. However, there was a slight disparity between the composition of primary and secondary γ′. Among the main γ′ forming elements, the primary γ′ has a high Ti concentration while secondary γ′ has a high Al concentration. A detailed description of the atom distribution maps and the proxigrams of the constituent elements of γ′ throughout the build can be found in [17].

Table 2. Bulk IN738 composition determined using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Compositions of γ, primary γ′, and secondary γ′ at various locations in the build measured by APT. This information is reproduced from data in Ref. [17] with permission.

at%NiCrCoAlMoWTiNbCBZrTaOthers
Bulk59.1217.478.487.001.010.813.960.490.470.050.090.560.46
γ matrix
Top50.4832.9111.591.941.390.820.440.80.030.030.020.24
Mid50.3732.6111.931.791.540.890.440.10.030.020.020.010.23
Bot48.1034.5712.082.141.430.880.480.080.040.030.010.12
Primary γ′
Top72.172.513.4412.710.250.397.780.560.030.020.050.08
Mid71.602.573.2813.550.420.687.040.730.010.030.040.04
Bot72.342.473.8612.500.260.447.460.500.050.020.020.030.04
Secondary γ′
Mid70.424.203.2314.190.631.035.340.790.030.040.040.05
Bot69.914.063.6814.320.811.045.220.650.050.100.020.11

3.2. Hardness

Fig. 3a shows the Vickers hardness mapping performed along the entire X-Z surface, while Fig. 3b shows the plot of average hardness at different build heights. This hardness distribution is consistent with the γ′ precipitate size gradient across the build direction in Fig. 1Fig. 2. The maximum hardness of ∼530 HV1 is found at ∼0.5 mm away from the top surface (Z = 22.5), where γ′ particles exhibit the smallest observed size in Fig. 2b. Further down the build (∼ 2 mm from the top), the hardness drops to the 440–490 HV1 range. This represents the region where γ′ begins to coarsen. The hardness drops further to 380–430 HV1 at the bottom of the build.

Fig. 3

3.3. Modeling of the microstructural evolution during E-PBF

3.3.1. Thermal profile modeling

Fig. 4 shows the simulated thermal profile of the E-PBF build at a location of 23 mm from the top of the build, using a semi-analytical heat conduction model. This profile consists of the time taken to deposit 460 layers until final cooling, as shown in Fig. 4a. Fig. 4b-d show the magnified regions of Fig. 4a and reveal the first 20 layers from the top, a single layer (first layer from the top), and the time taken for the build to cool after the last layer deposition, respectively.

Fig. 4

The peak temperatures experienced by previous layers decrease progressively as the number of layers increases but never fall below the build preheat temperature (1000 °C). Our simulated thermal cycle may not completely capture the complexity of the actual thermal cycle utilized in the E-PBF build. For instance, the top layer (Fig. 4c), also representing the first deposit’s thermal profile without additional cycles (from powder heating, melting, to solidification), recorded the highest peak temperature of 1390 °C. Although this temperature is above the melting range of the alloy (1230–1360 °C) [62], we believe a much higher temperature was produced by the electron beam to melt the powder. Nevertheless, the solidification temperature and dynamics are outside the scope of this study as our focus is on the solid-state phase transformations during deposition. It takes ∼25 s for each layer to be deposited and cooled to the build temperature. The interlayer dwell time is 125 s. The time taken for the build to cool to room temperature (RT) after final layer deposition is ∼4.7 hrs (17,000 s).

3.3.2. MatCalc simulation

During the MatCalc simulation, the matrix phase is defined as γ. γ′, and MC carbide are included as possible precipitates. The domain of these precipitates is set to be the matrix (γ), and nucleation is assumed to be homogenous. In homogeneous nucleation, all atoms of the unit volume are assumed to be potential nucleation sitesTable 3 shows the computational parameters used in the simulation. All other parameters were set at default values as recommended in the version 6.04.0011 of MatCalc. The values for the interfacial energies are automatically calculated according to the generalized nearest neighbor broken bond model and is one of the most outstanding features in MatCalc [56][57][58]. It should be noted that the elastic misfit strain was not included in the calculation. The output of MatCalc includes phase fraction, size, nucleation rate, and composition of the precipitates. The phase fraction in MatCalc is the volume fraction. Although the experimental phase fraction is the measured area fraction, it is relatively similar to the volume fraction. This is because of the generally larger precipitate size and similar morphology at the various locations along the build [63]. A reliable phase fraction comparison between experiment and simulation can therefore be made.

Table 3. Computational parameters used in the simulation.

Precipitation domainγ
Nucleation site γ′Bulk (homogenous)
Nucleation site MC carbideBulk (Homogenous)
Precipitates class size250
Regular solution critical temperature γ′2500 K[64]
Calculated interfacial energyγ′ = 0.080–0.140 J/m2 and MC carbide = 0.410–0.430 J/m2
3.3.2.1. Precipitate phase fraction

Fig. 5a shows the simulated phase fraction of γ′ and MC carbide during thermal cycling. Fig. 5b is a magnified view of 5a showing the simulated phase fraction at the center points of the top 70 layers, whereas Fig. 5c corresponds to the first two layers from the top. As mentioned earlier, the top layer (460th layer) represents the microstructure after solidification. The microstructure of the layers below is determined by the number of thermal cycles, which increases with distance to the top. For example, layers 459, 458, 457, up to layer 1 (region of interest) experience 1, 2, 3 and 459 thermal cycles, respectively. In the top layer in Fig. 5c, the volume fraction of γ′ and carbides increases with temperature. For γ′, it decreases to zero when the temperature is above the solvus temperature after a few seconds. Carbides, however, remain constant in their volume fraction reaching equilibrium (phase fraction ∼ 0.9%) in a short time. The topmost layer can be compared to the first deposit, and the peak in temperature symbolizes the stage where the electron beam heats the powder until melting. This means γ′ and carbide precipitation might have started in the powder particles during heating from the build temperature and electron beam until the onset of melting, where γ′ dissolves, but carbides remain stable [28].

Fig. 5

During cooling after deposition, γ′ reprecipitates at a temperature of 1085 °C, which is below its solvus temperature. As cooling progresses, the phase fraction increases steadily to ∼27% and remains constant at 1000 °C (elevated build temperature). The calculated equilibrium fraction of phases by MatCalc is used to show the complex precipitation characteristics in this alloy. Fig. 6 shows that MC carbides form during solidification at 1320 °C, followed by γ′, which precipitate when the solidified layer cools to 1140 °C. This indicates that all deposited layers might contain a negligible amount of these precipitates before subsequent layer deposition, while being at the 1000 °C build temperature or during cooling to RT. The phase diagram also shows that the equilibrium fraction of the γ′ increases as temperature decreases. For instance, at 1000, 900, and 800 °C, the phase fractions are ∼30%, 38%, and 42%, respectively.

Fig. 6

Deposition of subsequent layers causes previous layers to undergo phase transformations as they are exposed to several thermal cycles with different peak temperatures. In Fig. 5c, as the subsequent layer is being deposited, γ′ in the previous layer (459th layer) begins to dissolve as the temperature crosses the solvus temperature. This is witnessed by the reduction of the γ′ phase fraction. This graph also shows how this phase dissolves during heating. However, the phase fraction of MC carbide remains stable at high temperatures and no dissolution is seen during thermal cycling. Upon cooling, the γ′ that was dissolved during heating reprecipitates with a surge in the phase fraction until 1000 °C, after which it remains constant. This microstructure is similar to the solidification microstructure (layer 460), with a similar γ′ phase fraction (∼27%).

The complete dissolution and reprecipitation of γ′ continue for several cycles until the 50th layer from the top (layer 411), where the phase fraction does not reach zero during heating to the peak temperature (see Fig. 5d). This indicates the ‘partial’ dissolution of γ′, which continues progressively with additional layers. It should be noted that the peak temperatures for layers that underwent complete dissolution were much higher (1170–1300 °C) than the γ′ solvus.

The dissolution and reprecipitation of γ′ during thermal cycling are further confirmed in Fig. 7, which summarizes the nucleation rate, phase fraction, and concentration of major elements that form γ′ in the matrix. Fig. 7b magnifies a single layer (3rd layer from top) within the full dissolution region in Fig. 7a to help identify the nucleation and growth mechanisms. From Fig. 7b, γ′ nucleation begins during cooling whereby the nucleation rate increases to reach a maximum value of approximately 1 × 1020 m−3s−1. This fast kinetics implies that some rearrangement of atoms is required for γ′ precipitates to form in the matrix [65][66]. The matrix at this stage is in a non-equilibrium condition. Its composition is similar to the nominal composition and remains unchanged. The phase fraction remains insignificant at this stage although nucleation has started. The nucleation rate starts declining upon reaching the peak value. Simultaneously, diffusion-controlled growth of existing nuclei occurs, depleting the matrix of γ′ forming elements (Al and Ti). Thus, from (7)(11), ∆�vol continuously decreases until nucleation ceases. The growth of nuclei is witnessed by the increase in phase fraction until a constant level is reached at 27% upon cooling to and holding at build temperature. This nucleation event is repeated several times.

Fig. 7

At the onset of partial dissolution, the nucleation rate jumps to 1 × 1021 m−3s−1, and then reduces sharply at the middle stage of partial dissolution. The nucleation rate reaches 0 at a later stage. Supplementary Fig. S1 shows a magnified view of the nucleation rate, phase fraction, and thermal profile, underpinning this trend. The jump in nucleation rate at the onset is followed by a progressive reduction in the solute content of the matrix. The peak temperatures (∼1130–1160 °C) are lower than those in complete dissolution regions but still above or close to the γ′ solvus. The maximum phase fraction (∼27%) is similar to that of the complete dissolution regions. At the middle stage, the reduction in nucleation rate is accompanied by a sharp drop in the matrix composition. The γ′ fraction drops to ∼24%, where the peak temperatures of the layers are just below or at γ′ solvus. The phase fraction then increases progressively through the later stage of partial dissolution to ∼30% towards the end of thermal cycling. The matrix solute content continues to drop although no nucleation event is seen. The peak temperatures are then far below the γ′ solvus. It should be noted that the matrix concentration after complete dissolution remains constant. Upon cooling to RT after final layer deposition, the nucleation rate increases again, indicating new nucleation events. The phase fraction reaches ∼40%, with a further depletion of the matrix in major γ′ forming elements.

3.3.2.2. γ′ size distribution

Fig. 8 shows histograms of the γ′ precipitate size distributions (PSD) along the build height during deposition. These PSDs are predicted at the end of each layer of interest just before final cooling to room temperature, to separate the role of thermal cycles from final cooling on the evolution of γ′. The PSD for the top layer (layer 460) is shown in Fig. 8a (last solidified region with solidification microstructure). The γ′ size ranges from 120 to 230 nm and is similar to the 44 layers below (2.2 mm from the top).

Fig. 8

Further down the build, γ′ begins to coarsen after layer 417 (44th layer from top). Fig. 8c shows the PSD after the 44th layer, where the γ′ size exhibits two peaks at ∼120–230 and ∼300 nm, with most of the population being in the former range. This is the onset of partial dissolution where simultaneously with the reprecipitation and growth of fresh γ′, the undissolved γ′ grows rapidly through diffusive transport of atoms to the precipitates. This is shown in Fig. 8c, where the precipitate class sizes between 250 and 350 represent the growth of undissolved γ′. Although this continues in the 416th layer, the phase fractions plot indicates that the onset of partial dissolution begins after the 411th layer. This implies that partial dissolution started early, but the fraction of undissolved γ′ was too low to impact the phase fraction. The reprecipitated γ′ are mostly in the 100–220 nm class range and similar to those observed during full dissolution.

As the number of layers increases, coarsening intensifies with continued growth of more undissolved γ′, and reprecipitation and growth of partially dissolved ones. Fig. 8d, e, and f show this sequence. Further down the build, coarsening progresses rapidly, as shown in Figs. 8d, 8e, and 8f. The γ′ size ranges from 120 to 1100 nm, with the peaks at 160, 180, and 220 nm in Figs. 8d, 8e, and 8f, respectively. Coarsening continues until nucleation ends during dissolution, where only the already formed γ′ precipitates continue to grow during further thermal cycling. The γ′ size at this point is much larger, as observed in layers 361 and 261, and continues to increase steadily towards the bottom (layer 1). Two populations in the ranges of ∼380–700 and ∼750–1100 nm, respectively, can be seen. The steady growth of γ′ towards the bottom is confirmed by the gradual decrease in the concentration of solute elements in the matrix (Fig. 7a). It should be noted that for each layer, the γ′ class with the largest size originates from continuous growth of the earliest set of the undissolved precipitates.

Fig. 9Fig. 10 and supplementary Figs. S2 and S3 show the γ′ size evolution during heating and cooling of a single layer in the full dissolution region, and early, middle stages, and later stages of partial dissolution, respectively. In all, the size of γ′ reduces during layer heating. Depending on the peak temperature of the layer which varies with build height, γ′ are either fully or partially dissolved as mentioned earlier. Upon cooling, the dissolved γ′ reprecipitate.

Fig. 9
Fig. 10

In Fig. 9, those layers that underwent complete dissolution (top layers) were held above γ′ solvus temperature for longer. In Fig. 10, layers at the early stage of partial dissolution spend less time in the γ′ solvus temperature region during heating, leading to incomplete dissolution. In such conditions, smaller precipitates are fully dissolved while larger ones shrink [67]. Layers in the middle stages of partial dissolution have peak temperatures just below or at γ′ solvus, not sufficient to achieve significant γ′ dissolution. As seen in supplementary Fig. S2, only a few smaller γ′ are dissolved back into the matrix during heating, i.e., growth of precipitates is more significant than dissolution. This explains the sharp decrease in concentration of Al and Ti in the matrix in this layer.

The previous sections indicate various phenomena such as an increase in phase fraction, further depletion of matrix composition, and new nucleation bursts during cooling. Analysis of the PSD after the final cooling of the build to room temperature allows a direct comparison to post-printing microstructural characterization. Fig. 11 shows the γ′ size distribution of layer 1 (460th layer from the top) after final cooling to room temperature. Precipitation of secondary γ′ is observed, leading to the multimodal size distribution of secondary and primary γ′. The secondary γ′ size falls within the 10–80 nm range. As expected, a further growth of the existing primary γ′ is also observed during cooling.

Fig. 11
3.3.2.3. γ′ chemistry after deposition

Fig. 12 shows the concentration of the major elements that form γ′ (Al, Ti, and Ni) in the primary and secondary γ′ at the bottom of the build, as calculated by MatCalc. The secondary γ′ has a higher Al content (13.5–14.5 at% Al), compared to 13 at% Al in the primary γ′. Additionally, within the secondary γ′, the smallest particles (∼10 nm) have higher Al contents than larger ones (∼70 nm). In contrast, for the primary γ′, there is no significant variation in the Al content as a function of their size. The Ni concentration in secondary γ′ (71.1–72 at%) is also higher in comparison to the primary γ′ (70 at%). The smallest secondary γ′ (∼10 nm) have higher Ni contents than larger ones (∼70 nm), whereas there is no substantial change in the Ni content of primary γ′, based on their size. As expected, Ti shows an opposite size-dependent variation. It ranges from ∼ 7.7–8.7 at% Ti in secondary γ′ to ∼9.2 at% in primary γ′. Similarly, within the secondary γ′, the smallest (∼10 nm) have lower Al contents than the larger ones (∼70 nm). No significant variation is observed for Ti content in primary γ′.

Fig. 12

4. Discussion

A combined modelling method is utilized to study the microstructural evolution during E-PBF of IN738. The presented results are discussed by examining the precipitation and dissolution mechanism of γ′ during thermal cycling. This is followed by a discussion on the phase fraction and size evolution of γ′ during thermal cycling and after final cooling. A brief discussion on carbide morphology is also made. Finally, a comparison is made between the simulation and experimental results to assess their agreement.

4.1. γ′ morphology as a function of build height

4.1.1. Nucleation of γ′

The fast precipitation kinetics of the γ′ phase enables formation of γ′ upon quenching from higher temperatures (above solvus) during thermal cycling [66]. In Fig. 7b, for a single layer in the full dissolution region, during cooling, the initial increase in nucleation rate signifies the first formation of nuclei. The slight increase in nucleation rate during partial dissolution, despite a decrease in the concentration of γ′ forming elements, may be explained by the nucleation kinetics. During partial dissolution and as the precipitates shrink, it is assumed that the regions at the vicinity of partially dissolved precipitates are enriched in γ′ forming elements [68][69]. This differs from the full dissolution region, in which case the chemical composition is evenly distributed in the matrix. Several authors have attributed the solute supersaturation of the matrix around primary γ′ to partial dissolution during isothermal ageing [69][70][71][72]. The enhanced supersaturation in the regions close to the precipitates results in a much higher driving force for nucleation, leading to a higher nucleation rate upon cooling. This phenomenon can be closely related to the several nucleation bursts upon continuous cooling of Ni-based superalloys, where second nucleation bursts exhibit higher nucleation rates [38][68][73][74].

At middle stages of partial dissolution, the reduction in the nucleation rate indicates that the existing composition and low supersaturation did not trigger nucleation as the matrix was closer to the equilibrium state. The end of a nucleation burst means that the supersaturation of Al and Ti has reached a low level, incapable of providing sufficient driving force during cooling to or holding at 1000 °C for further nucleation [73]. Earlier studies on Ni-based superalloys have reported the same phenomenon during ageing or continuous cooling from the solvus temperature to RT [38][73][74].

4.1.2. Dissolution of γ′ during thermal cycling

γ′ dissolution kinetics during heating are fast when compared to nucleation due to exponential increase in phase transformation and diffusion activities with temperature [65]. As shown in Fig. 9Fig. 10, and supplementary Figs. S2 and S3, the reduction in γ′ phase fraction and size during heating indicates γ′ dissolution. This is also revealed in Fig. 5 where phase fraction decreases upon heating. The extent of γ′ dissolution mostly depends on the temperature, time spent above γ′ solvus, and precipitate size [75][76][77]. Smaller γ′ precipitates are first to be dissolved [67][77][78]. This is mainly because more solute elements need to be transported away from large γ′ precipitates than from smaller ones [79]. Also, a high temperature above γ′ solvus temperature leads to a faster dissolution rate [80]. The equilibrium solvus temperature of γ′ in IN738 in our MatCalc simulation (Fig. 6) and as reported by Ojo et al. [47] is 1140 °C and 1130–1180 °C, respectively. This means the peak temperature experienced by previous layers decreases progressively from γ′ supersolvus to subsolvus, near-solvus, and far from solvus as the number of subsequent layers increases. Based on the above, it can be inferred that the degree of dissolution of γ′ contributes to the gradient in precipitate distribution.

Although the peak temperatures during later stages of partial dissolution are much lower than the equilibrium γ′ solvus, γ′ dissolution still occurs but at a significantly lower rate (supplementary Fig. S3). Wahlmann et al. [28] also reported a similar case where they observed the rapid dissolution of γ′ in CMSX-4 during fast heating and cooling cycles at temperatures below the γ′ solvus. They attributed this to the γ′ phase transformation process taking place in conditions far from the equilibrium. While the same reasoning may be valid for our study, we further believe that the greater surface area to volume ratio of the small γ′ precipitates contributed to this. This ratio means a larger area is available for solute atoms to diffuse into the matrix even at temperatures much below the solvus [81].

4.2. γ′ phase fraction and size evolution

4.2.1. During thermal cycling

In the first layer, the steep increase in γ′ phase fraction during heating (Fig. 5), which also represents γ′ precipitation in the powder before melting, has qualitatively been validated in [28]. The maximum phase fraction of 27% during the first few layers of thermal cycling indicates that IN738 theoretically could reach the equilibrium state (∼30%), but the short interlayer time at the build temperature counteracts this. The drop in phase fraction at middle stages of partial dissolution is due to the low number of γ′ nucleation sites [73]. It has been reported that a reduction of γ′ nucleation sites leads to a delay in obtaining the final volume fraction as more time is required for γ′ precipitates to grow and reach equilibrium [82]. This explains why even upon holding for 150 s before subsequent layer deposition, the phase fraction does not increase to those values that were observed in the previous full γ′ dissolution regions. Towards the end of deposition, the increase in phase fraction to the equilibrium value of 30% is as a result of the longer holding at build temperature or close to it [83].

During thermal cycling, γ′ particles begin to grow immediately after they first precipitate upon cooling. This is reflected in the rapid increase in phase fraction and size during cooling in Fig. 5 and supplementary Fig. S2, respectively. The rapid growth is due to the fast diffusion of solute elements at high temperatures [84]. The similar size of γ′ for the first 44 layers from the top can be attributed to the fact that all layers underwent complete dissolution and hence, experienced the same nucleation event and growth during deposition. This corresponds with the findings by Balikci et al. [85], who reported that the degree of γ′ precipitation in IN738LC does not change when a solution heat treatment is conducted above a certain critical temperature.

The increase in coarsening rate (Fig. 8) during thermal cycling can first be ascribed to the high peak temperature of the layers [86]. The coarsening rate of γ′ is known to increase rapidly with temperature due to the exponential growth of diffusion activity. Also, the simultaneous dissolution with coarsening could be another reason for the high coarsening rate, as γ′ coarsening is a diffusion-driven process where large particles grow by consuming smaller ones [78][84][86][87]. The steady growth of γ′ towards the bottom of the build is due to the much lower layer peak temperature, which is almost close to the build temperature, and reduced dissolution activity, as is seen in the much lower solute concentration in γ′ compared to those in the full and partial dissolution regions.

4.2.2. During cooling

The much higher phase fraction of ∼40% upon cooling signifies the tendency of γ′ to reach equilibrium at lower temperatures (Fig. 4). This is due to the precipitation of secondary γ′ and a further increase in the size of existing primary γ′, which leads to a multimodal size distribution of γ′ after cooling [38][73][88][89][90]. The reason for secondary γ′ formation during cooling is as follows: As cooling progresses, it becomes increasingly challenging to redistribute solute elements in the matrix owing to their lower mobility [38][73]. A higher supersaturation level in regions away from or free of the existing γ′ precipitates is achieved, making them suitable sites for additional nucleation bursts. More cooling leads to the growth of these secondary γ′ precipitates, but as the temperature and in turn, the solute diffusivity is low, growth remains slow.

4.3. Carbides

MC carbides in IN738 are known to have a significant impact on the high-temperature strength. They can also act as effective hardening particles and improve the creep resistance [91]. Precipitation of MC carbides in IN738 and several other superalloys is known to occur during solidification or thermal treatments (e.g., hot isostatic pressing) [92]. In our case, this means that the MC carbides within the E-PBF build formed because of the thermal exposure from the E-PBF thermal cycle in addition to initial solidification. Our simulation confirms this as MC carbides appear during layer heating (Fig. 5). The constant and stable phase fraction of MC carbides during thermal cycling can be attributed to their high melting point (∼1360 °C) and the short holding time at peak temperatures [75][93][94]. The solvus temperature for most MC carbides exceeds most of the peak temperatures observed in our simulation, and carbide dissolution kinetics at temperatures above the solvus are known to be comparably slow [95]. The stable phase fraction and random distribution of MC carbides signifies the slight influence on the gradient in hardness.

4.4. Comparison of simulations and experiments

4.4.1. Precipitate phase fraction and morphology as a function of build height

A qualitative agreement is observed for the phase fraction of carbides, i.e. ∼0.8% in the experiment and ∼0.9% in the simulation. The phase fraction of γ′ differs, with the experiment reporting a value of ∼51% and the simulation, 40%. Despite this, the size distribution of primary γ′ along the build shows remarkable consistency between experimental and computational analyses. It is worth noting that the primary γ′ morphology in the experimental analysis is observed in the as-fabricated state, whereas the simulation (Fig. 8) captures it during deposition process. The primary γ′ size in the experiment is expected to experience additional growth during the cooling phase. Regardless, both show similar trends in primary γ′ size increments from the top to the bottom of the build. The larger primary γ’ size in the simulation versus the experiment can be attributed to the fact that experimental and simulation results are based on 2D and 3D data, respectively. The absence of stereological considerations [96] in our analysis could have led to an underestimation of the precipitate sizes from SEM measurements. The early starts of coarsening (8th layer) in the experiment compared to the simulation (45th layer) can be attributed to a higher actual γ′ solvus temperature than considered in our simulation [47]. The solvus temperature of γ′ in a Ni-based superalloy is mainly determined by the detailed composition. A high amount of Cr and Co are known to reduce the solvus temperature, whereas Ta and Mo will increase it [97][98][99]. The elemental composition from our experimental work was used for the simulation except for Ta. It should be noted that Ta is not included in the thermodynamic database in MatCalc used, and this may have reduced the solvus temperature. This could also explain the relatively higher γ′ phase fraction in the experiment than in simulation, as a higher γ′ solvus temperature will cause more γ′ to precipitate and grow early during cooling [99][100].

Another possible cause of this deviation can be attributed to the extent of γ′ dissolution, which is mainly determined by the peak temperature. It can be speculated that individual peak temperatures at different layers in the simulation may have been over-predicted. However, one needs to consider that the true thermal profile is likely more complicated in the actual E-PBF process [101]. For example, the current model assumes that the thermophysical properties of the material are temperature-independent, which is not realistic. Many materials, including IN738, exhibit temperature-dependent properties such as thermal conductivityspecific heat capacity, and density [102]. This means that heat transfer simulations may underestimate or overestimate the temperature gradients and cooling rates within the powder bed and the solidified part. Additionally, the model does not account for the reduced thermal diffusivity through unmelted powder, where gas separating the powder acts as insulation, impeding the heat flow [1]. In E-PBF, the unmelted powder regions with trapped gas have lower thermal diffusivity compared to the fully melted regions, leading to localized temperature variations, and altered solidification behavior. These limitations can impact the predictions, particularly in relation to the carbide dissolution, as the peak temperatures may be underestimated.

While acknowledging these limitations, it is worth emphasizing that achieving a detailed and accurate representation of each layer’s heat source would impose tough computational challenges. Given the substantial layer count in E-PBF, our decision to employ a semi-analytical approximation strikes a balance between computational feasibility and the capture of essential trends in thermal profiles across diverse build layers. In future work, a dual-calibration strategy is proposed to further reduce simulation-experiment disparities. By refining temperature-independent thermophysical property approximations and absorptivity in the heat source model, and by optimizing interfacial energy descriptions in the kinetic model, the predictive precision could be enhanced. Further refining the simulation controls, such as adjusting the precipitate class size may enhance quantitative comparisons between modeling outcomes and experimental data in future work.

4.4.2. Multimodal size distribution of γ′ and concentration

Another interesting feature that sees qualitative agreement between the simulation and the experiment is the multimodal size distribution of γ′. The formation of secondary γ′ particles in the experiment and most E-PBF Ni-based superalloys is suggested to occur at low temperatures, during final cooling to RT [16][73][90]. However, so far, this conclusion has been based on findings from various continuous cooling experiments, as the study of the evolution during AM would require an in-situ approach. Our simulation unambiguously confirms this in an AM context by providing evidence for secondary γ′ precipitation during slow cooling to RT. Additionally, it is possible to speculate that the chemical segregation occurring during solidification, due to the preferential partitioning of certain elements between the solid and liquid phases, can contribute to the multimodal size distribution during deposition [51]. This is because chemical segregation can result in variations in the local composition of superalloys, which subsequently affects the nucleation and growth of γ′. Regions with higher concentrations of alloying elements will encourage the formation of larger γ′ particles, while regions with lower concentrations may favor the nucleation of smaller precipitates. However, it is important to acknowledge that the elevated temperature during the E-PBF process will largely homogenize these compositional differences [103][104].

A good correlation is also shown in the composition of major γ′ forming elements (Al and Ti) in primary and secondary γ′. Both experiment and simulation show an increasing trend for Al content and a decreasing trend for Ti content from primary to secondary γ′. The slight composition differences between primary and secondary γ′ particles are due to the different diffusivity of γ′ stabilizers at different thermal conditions [105][106]. As the formation of multimodal γ′ particles with different sizes occurs over a broad temperature range, the phase chemistry of γ′ will be highly size dependent. The changes in the chemistry of various γ′ (primary, secondary, and tertiary) have received significant attention since they have a direct influence on the performance [68][105][107][108][109]. Chen et al. [108][109], reported a high Al content in the smallest γ′ precipitates compared to the largest, while Ti showed an opposite trend during continuous cooling in a RR1000 Ni-based superalloy. This was attributed to the temperature and cooling rate at which the γ′ precipitates were formed. The smallest precipitates formed last, at the lowest temperature and cooling rate. A comparable observation is evident in the present investigation, where the secondary γ′ forms at a low temperature and cooling rate in comparison to the primary. The temperature dependence of γ′ chemical composition is further evidenced in supplementary Fig. S4, which shows the equilibrium chemical composition of γ′ as a function of temperature.

5. Conclusions

A correlative modelling approach capable of predicting solid-state phase transformations kinetics in metal AM was developed. This approach involves computational simulations with a semi-analytical heat transfer model and the MatCalc thermo-kinetic software. The method was used to predict the phase transformation kinetics and detailed morphology and chemistry of γ′ and MC during E-PBF of IN738 Ni-based superalloy. The main conclusions are:

  • 1.The computational simulations are in qualitative agreement with the experimental observations. This is particularly true for the γ′ size distribution along the build height, the multimodal size distribution of particles, and the phase fraction of MC carbides.
  • 2.The deviations between simulation and experiment in terms of γ′ phase fraction and location in the build are most likely attributed to a higher γ′ solvus temperature during the experiment than in the simulation, which is argued to be related to the absence of Ta in the MatCalc database.
  • 3.The dissolution and precipitation of γ′ occur fast and under non-equilibrium conditions. The level of γ′ dissolution determines the gradient in γ′ size distribution along the build. After thermal cycling, the final cooling to room temperature has further significant impacts on the final γ′ size, morphology, and distribution.
  • 4.A negligible amount of γ′ forms in the first deposited layer before subsequent layer deposition, and a small amount of γ′ may also form in the powder induced by the 1000 °C elevated build temperature before melting.

Our findings confirm the suitability of MatCalc to predict the microstructural evolution at various positions throughout a build in a Ni-based superalloy during E-PBF. It also showcases the suitability of a tool which was originally developed for traditional thermo-mechanical processing of alloys to the new additive manufacturing context. Our simulation capabilities are likely extendable to other alloy systems that undergo solid-state phase transformations implemented in MatCalc (various steels, Ni-based superalloys, and Al-alloys amongst others) as well as other AM processes such as L-DED and L-PBF which have different thermal cycle characteristics. New tools to predict the microstructural evolution and properties during metal AM are important as they provide new insights into the complexities of AM. This will enable control and design of AM microstructures towards advanced materials properties and performances.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Primig Sophie: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Adomako Nana Kwabena: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Software, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Haghdadi Nima: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Conceptualization. Dingle James F.L.: Methodology, Conceptualization, Software, Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Kozeschnik Ernst: Writing – review & editing, Software, Methodology. Liao Xiaozhou: Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Ringer Simon P: Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research was sponsored by the Department of Industry, Innovation, and Science under the auspices of the AUSMURI program – which is a part of the Commonwealth’s Next Generation Technologies Fund. The authors acknowledge the facilities and the scientific and technical assistance at the Electron Microscope Unit (EMU) within the Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre (MWAC) at UNSW Sydney and Microscopy Australia. Nana Adomako is supported by a UNSW Scientia PhD scholarship. Michael Haines’ (UNSW Sydney) contribution to the revised version of the original manuscript is thankfully acknowledged.

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Download : Download Word document (462KB)

Supplementary material.

Data Availability

Data will be made available on request.

References

Figure 2 Modeling the plant with cylindrical tubes at the bottom of the canal.

Optimized Vegetation Density to Dissipate Energy of Flood Flow in Open Canals

열린 운하에서 홍수 흐름의 에너지를 분산시키기 위해 최적화된 식생 밀도

Mahdi Feizbahr,1Navid Tonekaboni,2Guang-Jun Jiang,3,4and Hong-Xia Chen3,4
Academic Editor: Mohammad Yazdi

Abstract

강을 따라 식생은 조도를 증가시키고 평균 유속을 감소시키며, 유동 에너지를 감소시키고 강 횡단면의 유속 프로파일을 변경합니다. 자연의 많은 운하와 강은 홍수 동안 초목으로 덮여 있습니다. 운하의 조도는 식물의 영향을 많이 받기 때문에 홍수시 유동저항에 큰 영향을 미친다. 식물로 인한 흐름에 대한 거칠기 저항은 흐름 조건과 식물에 따라 달라지므로 모델은 유속, 유속 깊이 및 수로를 따라 식생 유형의 영향을 고려하여 유속을 시뮬레이션해야 합니다. 총 48개의 모델을 시뮬레이션하여 근관의 거칠기 효과를 조사했습니다. 결과는 속도를 높임으로써 베드 속도를 감소시키는 식생의 영향이 무시할만하다는 것을 나타냅니다.

Abstract

Vegetation along the river increases the roughness and reduces the average flow velocity, reduces flow energy, and changes the flow velocity profile in the cross section of the river. Many canals and rivers in nature are covered with vegetation during the floods. Canal’s roughness is strongly affected by plants and therefore it has a great effect on flow resistance during flood. Roughness resistance against the flow due to the plants depends on the flow conditions and plant, so the model should simulate the current velocity by considering the effects of velocity, depth of flow, and type of vegetation along the canal. Total of 48 models have been simulated to investigate the effect of roughness in the canal. The results indicated that, by enhancing the velocity, the effect of vegetation in decreasing the bed velocity is negligible, while when the current has lower speed, the effect of vegetation on decreasing the bed velocity is obviously considerable.

1. Introduction

Considering the impact of each variable is a very popular field within the analytical and statistical methods and intelligent systems [114]. This can help research for better modeling considering the relation of variables or interaction of them toward reaching a better condition for the objective function in control and engineering [1527]. Consequently, it is necessary to study the effects of the passive factors on the active domain [2836]. Because of the effect of vegetation on reducing the discharge capacity of rivers [37], pruning plants was necessary to improve the condition of rivers. One of the important effects of vegetation in river protection is the action of roots, which cause soil consolidation and soil structure improvement and, by enhancing the shear strength of soil, increase the resistance of canal walls against the erosive force of water. The outer limbs of the plant increase the roughness of the canal walls and reduce the flow velocity and deplete the flow energy in vicinity of the walls. Vegetation by reducing the shear stress of the canal bed reduces flood discharge and sedimentation in the intervals between vegetation and increases the stability of the walls [3841].

One of the main factors influencing the speed, depth, and extent of flood in this method is Manning’s roughness coefficient. On the other hand, soil cover [42], especially vegetation, is one of the most determining factors in Manning’s roughness coefficient. Therefore, it is expected that those seasonal changes in the vegetation of the region will play an important role in the calculated value of Manning’s roughness coefficient and ultimately in predicting the flood wave behavior [4345]. The roughness caused by plants’ resistance to flood current depends on the flow and plant conditions. Flow conditions include depth and velocity of the plant, and plant conditions include plant type, hardness or flexibility, dimensions, density, and shape of the plant [46]. In general, the issue discussed in this research is the optimization of flood-induced flow in canals by considering the effect of vegetation-induced roughness. Therefore, the effect of plants on the roughness coefficient and canal transmission coefficient and in consequence the flow depth should be evaluated [4748].

Current resistance is generally known by its roughness coefficient. The equation that is mainly used in this field is Manning equation. The ratio of shear velocity to average current velocity  is another form of current resistance. The reason for using the  ratio is that it is dimensionless and has a strong theoretical basis. The reason for using Manning roughness coefficient is its pervasiveness. According to Freeman et al. [49], the Manning roughness coefficient for plants was calculated according to the Kouwen and Unny [50] method for incremental resistance. This method involves increasing the roughness for various surface and plant irregularities. Manning’s roughness coefficient has all the factors affecting the resistance of the canal. Therefore, the appropriate way to more accurately estimate this coefficient is to know the factors affecting this coefficient [51].

To calculate the flow rate, velocity, and depth of flow in canals as well as flood and sediment estimation, it is important to evaluate the flow resistance. To determine the flow resistance in open ducts, Manning, Chézy, and Darcy–Weisbach relations are used [52]. In these relations, there are parameters such as Manning’s roughness coefficient (n), Chézy roughness coefficient (C), and Darcy–Weisbach coefficient (f). All three of these coefficients are a kind of flow resistance coefficient that is widely used in the equations governing flow in rivers [53].

The three relations that express the relationship between the average flow velocity (V) and the resistance and geometric and hydraulic coefficients of the canal are as follows:where nf, and c are Manning, Darcy–Weisbach, and Chézy coefficients, respectively. V = average flow velocity, R = hydraulic radius, Sf = slope of energy line, which in uniform flow is equal to the slope of the canal bed,  = gravitational acceleration, and Kn is a coefficient whose value is equal to 1 in the SI system and 1.486 in the English system. The coefficients of resistance in equations (1) to (3) are related as follows:

Based on the boundary layer theory, the flow resistance for rough substrates is determined from the following general relation:where f = Darcy–Weisbach coefficient of friction, y = flow depth, Ks = bed roughness size, and A = constant coefficient.

On the other hand, the relationship between the Darcy–Weisbach coefficient of friction and the shear velocity of the flow is as follows:

By using equation (6), equation (5) is converted as follows:

Investigation on the effect of vegetation arrangement on shear velocity of flow in laboratory conditions showed that, with increasing the shear Reynolds number (), the numerical value of the  ratio also increases; in other words the amount of roughness coefficient increases with a slight difference in the cases without vegetation, checkered arrangement, and cross arrangement, respectively [54].

Roughness in river vegetation is simulated in mathematical models with a variable floor slope flume by different densities and discharges. The vegetation considered submerged in the bed of the flume. Results showed that, with increasing vegetation density, canal roughness and flow shear speed increase and with increasing flow rate and depth, Manning’s roughness coefficient decreases. Factors affecting the roughness caused by vegetation include the effect of plant density and arrangement on flow resistance, the effect of flow velocity on flow resistance, and the effect of depth [4555].

One of the works that has been done on the effect of vegetation on the roughness coefficient is Darby [56] study, which investigates a flood wave model that considers all the effects of vegetation on the roughness coefficient. There are currently two methods for estimating vegetation roughness. One method is to add the thrust force effect to Manning’s equation [475758] and the other method is to increase the canal bed roughness (Manning-Strickler coefficient) [455961]. These two methods provide acceptable results in models designed to simulate floodplain flow. Wang et al. [62] simulate the floodplain with submerged vegetation using these two methods and to increase the accuracy of the results, they suggested using the effective height of the plant under running water instead of using the actual height of the plant. Freeman et al. [49] provided equations for determining the coefficient of vegetation roughness under different conditions. Lee et al. [63] proposed a method for calculating the Manning coefficient using the flow velocity ratio at different depths. Much research has been done on the Manning roughness coefficient in rivers, and researchers [496366] sought to obtain a specific number for n to use in river engineering. However, since the depth and geometric conditions of rivers are completely variable in different places, the values of Manning roughness coefficient have changed subsequently, and it has not been possible to choose a fixed number. In river engineering software, the Manning roughness coefficient is determined only for specific and constant conditions or normal flow. Lee et al. [63] stated that seasonal conditions, density, and type of vegetation should also be considered. Hydraulic roughness and Manning roughness coefficient n of the plant were obtained by estimating the total Manning roughness coefficient from the matching of the measured water surface curve and water surface height. The following equation is used for the flow surface curve:where  is the depth of water change, S0 is the slope of the canal floor, Sf is the slope of the energy line, and Fr is the Froude number which is obtained from the following equation:where D is the characteristic length of the canal. Flood flow velocity is one of the important parameters of flood waves, which is very important in calculating the water level profile and energy consumption. In the cases where there are many limitations for researchers due to the wide range of experimental dimensions and the variety of design parameters, the use of numerical methods that are able to estimate the rest of the unknown results with acceptable accuracy is economically justified.

FLOW-3D software uses Finite Difference Method (FDM) for numerical solution of two-dimensional and three-dimensional flow. This software is dedicated to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and is provided by Flow Science [67]. The flow is divided into networks with tubular cells. For each cell there are values of dependent variables and all variables are calculated in the center of the cell, except for the velocity, which is calculated at the center of the cell. In this software, two numerical techniques have been used for geometric simulation, FAVOR™ (Fractional-Area-Volume-Obstacle-Representation) and the VOF (Volume-of-Fluid) method. The equations used at this model for this research include the principle of mass survival and the magnitude of motion as follows. The fluid motion equations in three dimensions, including the Navier–Stokes equations with some additional terms, are as follows:where  are mass accelerations in the directions xyz and  are viscosity accelerations in the directions xyz and are obtained from the following equations:

Shear stresses  in equation (11) are obtained from the following equations:

The standard model is used for high Reynolds currents, but in this model, RNG theory allows the analytical differential formula to be used for the effective viscosity that occurs at low Reynolds numbers. Therefore, the RNG model can be used for low and high Reynolds currents.

Weather changes are high and this affects many factors continuously. The presence of vegetation in any area reduces the velocity of surface flows and prevents soil erosion, so vegetation will have a significant impact on reducing destructive floods. One of the methods of erosion protection in floodplain watersheds is the use of biological methods. The presence of vegetation in watersheds reduces the flow rate during floods and prevents soil erosion. The external organs of plants increase the roughness and decrease the velocity of water flow and thus reduce its shear stress energy. One of the important factors with which the hydraulic resistance of plants is expressed is the roughness coefficient. Measuring the roughness coefficient of plants and investigating their effect on reducing velocity and shear stress of flow is of special importance.

Roughness coefficients in canals are affected by two main factors, namely, flow conditions and vegetation characteristics [68]. So far, much research has been done on the effect of the roughness factor created by vegetation, but the issue of plant density has received less attention. For this purpose, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of vegetation density on flow velocity changes.

In a study conducted using a software model on three density modes in the submerged state effect on flow velocity changes in 48 different modes was investigated (Table 1).

Table 1 

The studied models.

The number of cells used in this simulation is equal to 1955888 cells. The boundary conditions were introduced to the model as a constant speed and depth (Figure 1). At the output boundary, due to the presence of supercritical current, no parameter for the current is considered. Absolute roughness for floors and walls was introduced to the model (Figure 1). In this case, the flow was assumed to be nonviscous and air entry into the flow was not considered. After  seconds, this model reached a convergence accuracy of .

Figure 1 

The simulated model and its boundary conditions.

Due to the fact that it is not possible to model the vegetation in FLOW-3D software, in this research, the vegetation of small soft plants was studied so that Manning’s coefficients can be entered into the canal bed in the form of roughness coefficients obtained from the studies of Chow [69] in similar conditions. In practice, in such modeling, the effect of plant height is eliminated due to the small height of herbaceous plants, and modeling can provide relatively acceptable results in these conditions.

48 models with input velocities proportional to the height of the regular semihexagonal canal were considered to create supercritical conditions. Manning coefficients were applied based on Chow [69] studies in order to control the canal bed. Speed profiles were drawn and discussed.

Any control and simulation system has some inputs that we should determine to test any technology [7077]. Determination and true implementation of such parameters is one of the key steps of any simulation [237881] and computing procedure [8286]. The input current is created by applying the flow rate through the VFR (Volume Flow Rate) option and the output flow is considered Output and for other borders the Symmetry option is considered.

Simulation of the models and checking their action and responses and observing how a process behaves is one of the accepted methods in engineering and science [8788]. For verification of FLOW-3D software, the results of computer simulations are compared with laboratory measurements and according to the values of computational error, convergence error, and the time required for convergence, the most appropriate option for real-time simulation is selected (Figures 2 and 3 ).

Figure 2 

Modeling the plant with cylindrical tubes at the bottom of the canal.

Figure 3 

Velocity profiles in positions 2 and 5.

The canal is 7 meters long, 0.5 meters wide, and 0.8 meters deep. This test was used to validate the application of the software to predict the flow rate parameters. In this experiment, instead of using the plant, cylindrical pipes were used in the bottom of the canal.

The conditions of this modeling are similar to the laboratory conditions and the boundary conditions used in the laboratory were used for numerical modeling. The critical flow enters the simulation model from the upstream boundary, so in the upstream boundary conditions, critical velocity and depth are considered. The flow at the downstream boundary is supercritical, so no parameters are applied to the downstream boundary.

The software well predicts the process of changing the speed profile in the open canal along with the considered obstacles. The error in the calculated speed values can be due to the complexity of the flow and the interaction of the turbulence caused by the roughness of the floor with the turbulence caused by the three-dimensional cycles in the hydraulic jump. As a result, the software is able to predict the speed distribution in open canals.

2. Modeling Results

After analyzing the models, the results were shown in graphs (Figures 414 ). The total number of experiments in this study was 48 due to the limitations of modeling.


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Figure 4 

Flow velocity profiles for canals with a depth of 1 m and flow velocities of 3–3.3 m/s. Canal with a depth of 1 meter and a flow velocity of (a) 3 meters per second, (b) 3.1 meters per second, (c) 3.2 meters per second, and (d) 3.3 meters per second.

Figure 5 

Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3 meters per second.

Figure 6 

Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3.1 meters per second.

Figure 7 

Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3.2 meters per second.

Figure 8 

Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3.3 meters per second.


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Figure 9 

Flow velocity profiles for canals with a depth of 2 m and flow velocities of 4–4.3 m/s. Canal with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of (a) 4 meters per second, (b) 4.1 meters per second, (c) 4.2 meters per second, and (d) 4.3 meters per second.

Figure 10 

Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4 meters per second.

Figure 11 

Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4.1 meters per second.

Figure 12 

Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4.2 meters per second.

Figure 13 

Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4.3 meters per second.


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Figure 14 

Flow velocity profiles for canals with a depth of 3 m and flow velocities of 5–5.3 m/s. Canal with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of (a) 4 meters per second, (b) 4.1 meters per second, (c) 4.2 meters per second, and (d) 4.3 meters per second.

To investigate the effects of roughness with flow velocity, the trend of flow velocity changes at different depths and with supercritical flow to a Froude number proportional to the depth of the section has been obtained.

According to the velocity profiles of Figure 5, it can be seen that, with the increasing of Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases.

According to Figures 5 to 8, it can be found that, with increasing the Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the models 1 to 12, which can be justified by increasing the speed and of course increasing the Froude number.

According to Figure 10, we see that, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases.

According to Figure 11, we see that, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of Figures 510, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

With increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases (Figure 12). But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher models (Figures 58 and 1011), which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

According to Figure 13, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of Figures 5 to 12, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

According to Figure 15, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases.

Figure 15 

Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5 meters per second.

According to Figure 16, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher model, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

Figure 16 

Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5.1 meters per second.

According to Figure 17, it is clear that, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher models, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

Figure 17 

Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5.2 meters per second.

According to Figure 18, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher models, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

Figure 18 

Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5.3 meters per second.

According to Figure 19, it can be seen that the vegetation placed in front of the flow input velocity has negligible effect on the reduction of velocity, which of course can be justified due to the flexibility of the vegetation. The only unusual thing is the unexpected decrease in floor speed of 3 m/s compared to higher speeds.


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Figure 19 

Comparison of velocity profiles with the same plant densities (depth 1 m). Comparison of velocity profiles with (a) plant densities of 25%, depth 1 m; (b) plant densities of 50%, depth 1 m; and (c) plant densities of 75%, depth 1 m.

According to Figure 20, by increasing the speed of vegetation, the effect of vegetation on reducing the flow rate becomes more noticeable. And the role of input current does not have much effect in reducing speed.


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Figure 20 

Comparison of velocity profiles with the same plant densities (depth 2 m). Comparison of velocity profiles with (a) plant densities of 25%, depth 2 m; (b) plant densities of 50%, depth 2 m; and (c) plant densities of 75%, depth 2 m.

According to Figure 21, it can be seen that, with increasing speed, the effect of vegetation on reducing the bed flow rate becomes more noticeable and the role of the input current does not have much effect. In general, it can be seen that, by increasing the speed of the input current, the slope of the profiles increases from the bed to the water surface and due to the fact that, in software, the roughness coefficient applies to the channel floor only in the boundary conditions, this can be perfectly justified. Of course, it can be noted that, due to the flexible conditions of the vegetation of the bed, this modeling can show acceptable results for such grasses in the canal floor. In the next directions, we may try application of swarm-based optimization methods for modeling and finding the most effective factors in this research [27815188994]. In future, we can also apply the simulation logic and software of this research for other domains such as power engineering [9599].


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Figure 21 

Comparison of velocity profiles with the same plant densities (depth 3 m). Comparison of velocity profiles with (a) plant densities of 25%, depth 3 m; (b) plant densities of 50%, depth 3 m; and (c) plant densities of 75%, depth 3 m.

3. Conclusion

The effects of vegetation on the flood canal were investigated by numerical modeling with FLOW-3D software. After analyzing the results, the following conclusions were reached:(i)Increasing the density of vegetation reduces the velocity of the canal floor but has no effect on the velocity of the canal surface.(ii)Increasing the Froude number is directly related to increasing the speed of the canal floor.(iii)In the canal with a depth of one meter, a sudden increase in speed can be observed from the lowest speed and higher speed, which is justified by the sudden increase in Froude number.(iv)As the inlet flow rate increases, the slope of the profiles from the bed to the water surface increases.(v)By reducing the Froude number, the effect of vegetation on reducing the flow bed rate becomes more noticeable. And the input velocity in reducing the velocity of the canal floor does not have much effect.(vi)At a flow rate between 3 and 3.3 meters per second due to the shallow depth of the canal and the higher landing number a more critical area is observed in which the flow bed velocity in this area is between 2.86 and 3.1 m/s.(vii)Due to the critical flow velocity and the slight effect of the roughness of the horseshoe vortex floor, it is not visible and is only partially observed in models 1-2-3 and 21.(viii)As the flow rate increases, the effect of vegetation on the rate of bed reduction decreases.(ix)In conditions where less current intensity is passing, vegetation has a greater effect on reducing current intensity and energy consumption increases.(x)In the case of using the flow rate of 0.8 cubic meters per second, the velocity distribution and flow regime show about 20% more energy consumption than in the case of using the flow rate of 1.3 cubic meters per second.

Nomenclature

n:Manning’s roughness coefficient
C:Chézy roughness coefficient
f:Darcy–Weisbach coefficient
V:Flow velocity
R:Hydraulic radius
g:Gravitational acceleration
y:Flow depth
Ks:Bed roughness
A:Constant coefficient
:Reynolds number
y/∂x:Depth of water change
S0:Slope of the canal floor
Sf:Slope of energy line
Fr:Froude number
D:Characteristic length of the canal
G:Mass acceleration
:Shear stresses.

Data Availability

All data are included within the paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Contract no. 71761030 and Natural Science Foundation of Inner Mongolia under Contract no. 2019LH07003.

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Numerical simulation on molten pool behavior of narrow gap gas tungsten arc welding

좁은 간격 가스 텅스텐 아크 용접의 용융 풀 거동에 대한 수치 시뮬레이션

Numerical simulation on molten pool behavior of narrow gap gas tungsten arc welding

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023)Cite this article

Abstract

As a highly efficient thick plate welding resolution, narrow gap gas tungsten arc welding (NG-GTAW) is in the face of a series of problems like inter-layer defects like pores, lack of fusion, inclusion of impurity, and the sensitivity to poor sidewall fusion, which is hard to be repaired after the welding process. This study employs numerical simulation to investigate the molten pool behavior in NG-GTAW root welding. A 3D numerical model was established, where a body-fitted coordinate system was applied to simulate the electromagnetic force, and a bridge transition model was developed to investigate the wire–feed root welding. The simulated results were validated experimentally. Results show that the molten pool behavior is dominated by electromagnetic force when the welding current is relatively high, and the dynamic change of the vortex actually determines the molten pool morphology. For self-fusion welding, there are two symmetric inward vortices in the cross-section and one clockwise vortex in the longitudinal section. With the increasing welding current, the vortices in the cross-section gradually move to the arc center with a decreasing range, while the vortex in the longitudinal section moves backward. With the increasing traveling speed, the vortices in the cross-section move toward the surface of the molten pool with a decreasing range, and the horizontal component of liquid metal velocity changes in the longitudinal section. For wire–feed welding, the filling metal strengthens the downward velocity component; as a result, the vortex formation is blocked in the cross-section and is strengthened in the longitudinal section.

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Data availability

The raw/processed data required cannot be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing study.

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Development of macro-defect-free PBF-EB-processed Ti–6Al–4V alloys with superior plasticity using PREP-synthesized powder and machine learning-assisted process optimization

Development of macro-defect-free PBF-EB-processed Ti–6Al–4V alloys with superior plasticity using PREP-synthesized powder and machine learning-assisted process optimization

Yunwei GuiabKenta Aoyagib Akihiko Chibab
aDepartment of Materials Processing, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6 Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
bInstitute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan

Received 14 October 2022, Revised 23 December 2022, Accepted 3 January 2023, Available online 5 January 2023.Show lessAdd to MendeleyShareCite

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.144595Get rights and content

Abstract

The elimination of internal macro-defects is a key issue in Ti–6Al–4V alloys fabricated via powder bed fusion using electron beams (PBF-EB), wherein internal macro-defects mainly originate from the virgin powder and inappropriate printing parameters. This study compares different types powders by combining support vector machine techniques to determine the most suitable powder for PBF-EB and to predict the processing window for the printing parameters without internal macro-defects. The results show that powders fabricated via plasma rotating electrode process have the best sphericity, flowability, and minimal porosity and are most suitable for printing. Surface roughness criterion was also applied to determine the quality of the even surfaces, and support vector machine was used to construct processing maps capable of predicting a wide range of four-dimensional printing parameters to obtain macro-defect-free samples, offering the possibility of subsequent development of Ti–6Al–4V alloys with excellent properties. The macro-defect-free samples exhibited good elongation, with the best overall mechanical properties being the ultimate tensile strength and elongation of 934.7 MPa and 24.3%, respectively. The elongation of the three macro-defect-free samples was much higher than that previously reported for additively manufactured Ti–6Al–4V alloys. The high elongation of the samples in this work is mainly attributed to the elimination of internal macro-defects.

Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies can rapidly manufacture complex or custom parts, reducing process steps and saving manufacturing time [[1], [2], [3], [4]], and are widely used in the aerospace, automotive, and other precision industries [5,6]. Powder bed fusion using an electron beam (PBF-EB) is an additive manufacturing method that uses a high-energy electron beam to melt metal powders layer by layer to produce parts. In contrast to selective laser melting, PBF-EB involves the preparation of samples in a high vacuum environment, which effectively prevents the introduction of impurities such as O and N. It also involves a preheating process for the print substrate and powder, which reduces residual thermal stress on the sample and subsequent heat treatment processes [[2], [3], [4],7]. Due to these features and advantages, PBF-EB technology is a very important AM technology with great potential in metallic materials. Moreover, PBF-EB is the ideal AM technology for the manufacture of complex components made of many alloys, such as titanium alloys, nickel-based superalloys, aluminum alloys and stainless steels [[2], [3], [4],8].

Ti–6Al–4V alloy is one of the prevalent commercial titanium alloys possessing high specific strength, excellent mechanical properties, excellent corrosion resistance, and good biocompatibility [9,10]. It is widely used in applications requiring low density and excellent corrosion resistance, such as the aerospace industry and biomechanical applications [11,12]. The mechanical properties of PBF-EB-processed Ti–6Al–4V alloys are superior to those fabricated by casting or forging, because the rapid cooling rate in PBF-EB results in finer grains [[12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18]]. However, the PBF-EB-fabricated parts often include internal macro-defects, which compromises their mechanical properties [[19], [20], [21], [22]]. This study focused on the elimination of macro-defects, such as porosity, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration and unmelted powders, which distinguishes them from micro-defects such as vacancies, dislocations, grain boundaries and secondary phases, etc. Large-sized fusion defects cause a severe reduction in mechanical strength. Smaller defects, such as pores and cracks, lead to the initiation of fatigue cracking and rapidly accelerate the cracking process [23]. The issue of internal macro-defects must be addressed to expand the application of the PBF-EB technology. The main studies for controlling internal macro-defects are online monitoring of defects, remelting and hot isostatic pressing (HIP). The literatures [24,25] report the use of infrared imaging or other imaging techniques to identify defects, but the monitoring of smaller sized defects is still not adequate. And in some cases remelting does not reduce the internal macro-defects of the part, but instead causes coarsening of the macrostructure and volatilization of some metal elements [23]. The HIP treatment does not completely eliminate the internal macro-defects, the original defect location may still act as a point of origin of the crack, and the subsequent treatment will consume more time and economic costs [23]. Therefore, optimizing suitable printing parameters to avoid internal macro-defects in printed parts at source is of great industrial value and research significance, and is an urgent issue in PBF-EB related technology.

There are two causes of internal macro-defects in the AM process: gas pores trapped in the virgin powder and the inappropriate printing parameters [7,23]. Gui et al. [26] classify internal macro-defects during PBF-EB process according to their shape, such as spherical defects, elongated shape defects, flat shape defects and other irregular shape defects. Of these, spherical defects mainly originate from raw material powders. Other shape defects mainly originate from lack of fusion or unmelted powders caused by unsuitable printing parameters, etc. The PBF-EB process requires powders with good flowability, and spherical powders are typically chosen as raw materials. The prevalent techniques for the fabrication of pre-alloyed powders are gas atomization (GA), plasma atomization (PA), and the plasma rotating electrode process (PREP) [27,28]. These methods yield powders with different characteristics that affect the subsequent fabrication. The selection of a suitable powder for PBF-EB is particularly important to produce Ti–6Al–4V alloys without internal macro-defects. The need to optimize several printing parameters such as beam current, scan speed, line offset, and focus offset make it difficult to eliminate internal macro-defects that occur during printing [23]. Most of the studies [11,12,22,[29], [30], [31], [32], [33]] on the optimization of AM processes for Ti–6Al–4V alloys have focused on samples with a limited set of parameters (e.g., power–scan speed) and do not allow for the guidance and development of unknown process windows for macro-defect-free samples. In addition, process optimization remains a time-consuming problem, with the traditional ‘trial and error’ method demanding considerable time and economic costs. The development of a simple and efficient method to predict the processing window for alloys without internal macro-defects is a key issue. In recent years, machine learning techniques have increasingly been used in the field of additive manufacturing and materials development [[34], [35], [36], [37]]. Aoyagi et al. [38] recently proposed a novel and efficient method based on a support vector machine (SVM) to optimize the two-dimensional process parameters (current and scan speed) and obtain PBF-EB-processed CoCr alloys without internal macro-defects. The method is one of the potential approaches toward effective optimization of more than two process parameters and makes it possible for the machine learning techniques to accelerate the development of alloys without internal macro-defects.

Herein, we focus on the elimination of internal macro-defects, such as pores, lack of fusion, etc., caused by raw powders and printing parameters. The Ti–6Al–4V powders produced by three different methods were compared, and the powder with the best sphericity, flowability, and minimal porosity was selected as the feedstock for subsequent printing. The relationship between the surface roughness and internal macro-defects in the Ti–6Al–4V components was also investigated. The combination of SVM and surface roughness indices (Sdr) predicted a wider four-dimensional processing window for obtaining Ti–6Al–4V alloys without internal macro-defects. Finally, we investigated the tensile properties of Ti–6Al–4V alloys at room temperature with different printing parameters, as well as the corresponding microstructures and fracture types.

Section snippets

Starting materials

Three types of Ti–6Al–4V alloy powders, produced by GA, PA, and PREP, were compared. The particle size distribution of the powders was determined using a laser particle size analyzer (LS230, Beckman Coulter, USA), and the flowability was measured using a Hall flowmeter (JIS-Z2502, Tsutsui Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd., Japan), according to the ASTM B213 standard. The powder morphology and internal macro-defects were determined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL JCM-6000) and X-ray 

Comparison of the characteristics of GA, PA, and PREP Ti–6Al–4V powders

The particle size distributions (PSDs) and flowability of the three types of Ti–6Al–4V alloy powders produced by GA, PA, and PREP are shown in Fig. 2. Although the average particle sizes are similar (89.4 μm for GA, 82.5 μm for PA, and 86.1μm for PREP), the particle size range is different for the three types of powder (6.2–174.8 μm for GA, 27.3–139.2 μm for PA, and 39.4–133.9 μm for PREP). The flowability of the GA, PA, and PREP powders was 30.25 ± 0.98, 26.54 ± 0.37, and 25.03 ± 0.22 (s/50

Conclusions

The characteristics of the three types of Ti–6Al–4V alloy powders produced via GA, PA, and PREP were compared. The PREP powder with the best sphericity, flowability, and low porosity was found to be the most favorable powder for subsequent printing of Ti–6Al–4V alloys without internal macro-defects. The quantitative criterion of Sdr <0.015 for even surfaces was also found to be applicable to Ti–6Al–4V alloys. The process maps of Ti–6Al–4V alloys include two regions, high beam current/scan speed 

Uncited references

[55]; [56]; [57]; [58]; [59]; [60]; [61]; [62]; [63]; [64]; [65].

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yunwei Gui: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Investigation. Kenta Aoyagi: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Akihiko Chiba: Supervision, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This study was based on the results obtained from project JPNP19007, commissioned by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO). This work was also supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Proposal No. 21K03801) and the Inter-University Cooperative Research Program (Proposal nos. 18G0418, 19G0411, and 20G0418) of the Cooperative Research and Development Center for Advanced Materials, Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University. It was also supported by the Council for

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Figure 5: 3D & 2D views of simulated fill sequence of a hollow cylinder at 1000 rpm and 1500 rpm at various time intervals during filling.

Computer Simulation of Centrifugal Casting Process using FLOW-3D

Aneesh Kumar J1, a, K. Krishnakumar1, b and S. Savithri2, c 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2 Computational Modelling& Simulation Division, Process Engineering & Environmental Technology Division CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science & Technology
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.
a aneesh82kj@gmail.com, b kkk@cet.ac.in, c sivakumarsavi@gmail.com, ssavithri@niist.res.in Key words: Mold filling, centrifugal casting process, computer simulation, FLOW- 3D™

Abstract

원심 주조 공정은 기능적으로 등급이 지정된 재료, 즉 구성 요소 간에 밀도 차이가 큰 복합 재료 또는 금속 재료를 생산하는 데 사용되는 잠재적인 제조 기술 중 하나입니다. 이 공정에서 유체 흐름이 중요한 역할을 하며 복잡한 흐름 공정을 이해하는 것은 결함 없는 주물을 생산하는 데 필수입니다. 금형이 고속으로 회전하고 금형 벽이 불투명하기 때문에 흐름 패턴을 실시간으로 시각화하는 것은 불가능합니다. 따라서 현재 연구에서는 상용 CFD 코드 FLOW-3D™를 사용하여 수직 원심 주조 공정 중 단순 중공 원통형 주조에 대한 금형 충전 시퀀스를 시뮬레이션했습니다. 수직 원심주조 공정 중 다양한 방사 속도가 충전 패턴에 미치는 영향을 조사하고 있습니다.

Centrifugal casting process is one of the potential manufacturing techniques used for producing functionally graded materials viz., composite materials or metallic materials which have high differences of density among constituents. In this process, the fluid flow plays a major role and understanding the complex flow process is a must for the production of defect-free castings. Since the mold spins at a high velocity and the mold wall being opaque, it is impossible to visualise the flow patterns in real time. Hence, in the present work, the commercial CFD code FLOW-3D™, has been used to simulate the mold filling sequence for a simple hollow cylindrical casting during vertical centrifugal casting process. Effect of various spinning velocities on the fill pattern during vertical centrifugal casting process is being investigated.

Figure 1: (a) Mold geometry and (b) Computational mesh
Figure 1: (a) Mold geometry and (b) Computational mesh
Figure 2: Experimental data on height of
vertex formed [8]  / Figure 3: Vertex height as a function of time
Figure 2: Experimental data on height of vertex formed [8]/Figure 3: Vertex height as a function of time
Figure 4: Free surface contours for water model at 10 s, 15 s and 20 s.
Figure 4: Free surface contours for water model at 10 s, 15 s and 20 s.
Figure 5: 3D & 2D views of simulated fill sequence of a hollow cylinder at 1000 rpm and 1500 rpm at various time intervals during filling.
Figure 5: 3D & 2D views of simulated fill sequence of a hollow cylinder at 1000 rpm and 1500 rpm at various time intervals during filling.

References

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이종 금속 인터커넥트의 펄스 레이저 용접을 위한 가공 매개변수 최적화

Optimization of processing parameters for pulsed laser welding of dissimilar metal interconnects

본 논문은 독자의 편의를 위해 기계번역된 내용이어서 자세한 내용은 원문을 참고하시기 바랍니다.

NguyenThi TienaYu-LungLoabM.Mohsin RazaaCheng-YenChencChi-PinChiuc

aNational Cheng Kung University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tainan, Taiwan

bNational Cheng Kung University, Academy of Innovative Semiconductor and Sustainable Manufacturing, Tainan, Taiwan

cJum-bo Co., Ltd, Xinshi District, Tainan, Taiwan

Abstract

워블 전략이 포함된 펄스 레이저 용접(PLW) 방법을 사용하여 알루미늄 및 구리 이종 랩 조인트의 제조를 위한 최적의 가공 매개변수에 대해 실험 및 수치 조사가 수행됩니다. 피크 레이저 출력과 접선 용접 속도의 대표적인 조합 43개를 선택하기 위해 원형 패킹 설계 알고리즘이 먼저 사용됩니다.

선택한 매개변수는 PLW 프로세스의 전산유체역학(CFD) 모델에 제공되어 용융 풀 형상(즉, 인터페이스 폭 및 침투 깊이) 및 구리 농도를 예측합니다. 시뮬레이션 결과는 설계 공간 내에서 PLW 매개변수의 모든 조합에 대한 용융 풀 형상 및 구리 농도를 예측하기 위해 3개의 대리 모델을 교육하는 데 사용됩니다.

마지막으로, 대체 모델을 사용하여 구성된 처리 맵은 용융 영역에 균열이나 기공이 없고 향상된 기계적 및 전기적 특성이 있는 이종 조인트를 생성하는 PLW 매개변수를 결정하기 위해 세 가지 품질 기준에 따라 필터링됩니다.

제안된 최적화 접근법의 타당성은 최적의 용접 매개변수를 사용하여 생성된 실험 샘플의 전단 강도, 금속간 화합물(IMC) 형성 및 전기 접촉 저항을 평가하여 입증됩니다.

결과는 최적의 매개변수가 1209N의 높은 전단 강도와 86µΩ의 낮은 전기 접촉 저항을 생성함을 확인합니다. 또한 용융 영역에는 균열 및 기공과 같은 결함이 없습니다.

An experimental and numerical investigation is performed into the optimal processing parameters for the fabrication of aluminum and copper dissimilar lap joints using a pulsed laser welding (PLW) method with a wobble strategy. A circle packing design algorithm is first employed to select 43 representative combinations of the peak laser power and tangential welding speed. The selected parameters are then supplied to a computational fluidic dynamics (CFD) model of the PLW process to predict the melt pool geometry (i.e., interface width and penetration depth) and copper concentration. The simulation results are used to train three surrogate models to predict the melt pool geometry and copper concentration for any combination of the PLW parameters within the design space. Finally, the processing maps constructed using the surrogate models are filtered in accordance with three quality criteria to determine the PLW parameters that produce dissimilar joints with no cracks or pores in the fusion zone and enhanced mechanical and electrical properties. The validity of the proposed optimization approach is demonstrated by evaluating the shear strength, intermetallic compound (IMC) formation, and electrical contact resistance of experimental samples produced using the optimal welding parameters. The results confirm that the optimal parameters yield a high shear strength of 1209 N and a low electrical contact resistance of 86 µΩ. Moreover, the fusion zone is free of defects, such as cracks and pores.

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of Al-Cu lap-joint arrangement
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of Al-Cu lap-joint arrangement
Fig. 2. Machine setup (MFQS-150W_1500W
Fig. 2. Machine setup (MFQS-150W_1500W
Fig. 5. Lap-shear mechanical tests: (a) experimental setup and specimen dimensions, and (b) two different failures of lap-joint welding.
N. Thi Tien et al.
Fig. 5. Lap-shear mechanical tests: (a) experimental setup and specimen dimensions, and (b) two different failures of lap-joint welding. N. Thi Tien et al.
Fig. 9. Simulation and experimental results for melt pool profile. (a) Simulation results for melt pool cross-section, and (b) OM image of melt pool cross-section.
(Note that laser processing parameter of 830 W and 565 mm/s is chosen.).
Fig. 9. Simulation and experimental results for melt pool profile. (a) Simulation results for melt pool cross-section, and (b) OM image of melt pool cross-section. (Note that laser processing parameter of 830 W and 565 mm/s is chosen.).

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Fig. 1. (a) Dimensions of the casting with runners (unit: mm), (b) a melt flow simulation using Flow-3D software together with Reilly's model[44], predicted that a large amount of bifilms (denoted by the black particles) would be contained in the final casting. (c) A solidification simulation using Pro-cast software showed that no shrinkage defect was contained in the final casting.

AZ91 합금 주물 내 연행 결함에 대한 캐리어 가스의 영향

TianLiabJ.M.T.DaviesaXiangzhenZhuc
aUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
bGrainger and Worrall Ltd, Bridgnorth WV15 5HP, United Kingdom
cBrunel Centre for Advanced Solidification Technology, Brunel University London, Kingston Ln, London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom

Abstract

An entrainment defect (also known as a double oxide film defect or bifilm) acts a void containing an entrapped gas when submerged into a light-alloy melt, thus reducing the quality and reproducibility of the final castings. Previous publications, carried out with Al-alloy castings, reported that this trapped gas could be subsequently consumed by the reaction with the surrounding melt, thus reducing the void volume and negative effect of entrainment defects. Compared with Al-alloys, the entrapped gas within Mg-alloy might be more efficiently consumed due to the relatively high reactivity of magnesium. However, research into the entrainment defects within Mg alloys has been significantly limited. In the present work, AZ91 alloy castings were produced under different carrier gas atmospheres (i.e., SF6/CO2, SF6/air). The evolution processes of the entrainment defects contained in AZ91 alloy were suggested according to the microstructure inspections and thermodynamic calculations. The defects formed in the different atmospheres have a similar sandwich-like structure, but their oxide films contained different combinations of compounds. The use of carrier gases, which were associated with different entrained-gas consumption rates, affected the reproducibility of AZ91 castings.

연행 결함(이중 산화막 결함 또는 이중막이라고도 함)은 경합금 용융물에 잠길 때 갇힌 가스를 포함하는 공극으로 작용하여 최종 주물의 품질과 재현성을 저하시킵니다. Al-합금 주물을 사용하여 수행된 이전 간행물에서는 이 갇힌 가스가 주변 용융물과의 반응에 의해 후속적으로 소모되어 공극 부피와 연행 결함의 부정적인 영향을 줄일 수 있다고 보고했습니다. Al-합금에 비해 마그네슘의 상대적으로 높은 반응성으로 인해 Mg-합금 내에 포집된 가스가 더 효율적으로 소모될 수 있습니다. 그러나 Mg 합금 내 연행 결함에 대한 연구는 상당히 제한적이었습니다. 현재 작업에서 AZ91 합금 주물은 다양한 캐리어 가스 분위기(즉, SF6/CO2, SF6/공기)에서 생산되었습니다. AZ91 합금에 포함된 연행 결함의 진화 과정은 미세 조직 검사 및 열역학 계산에 따라 제안되었습니다. 서로 다른 분위기에서 형성된 결함은 유사한 샌드위치 구조를 갖지만 산화막에는 서로 다른 화합물 조합이 포함되어 있습니다. 다른 동반 가스 소비율과 관련된 운반 가스의 사용은 AZ91 주물의 재현성에 영향을 미쳤습니다.

Keywords

Magnesium alloy, Casting, Oxide film, Bifilm, Entrainment defect, Reproducibility

1. Introduction

As the lightest structural metal available on Earth, magnesium became one of the most attractive light metals over the last few decades. The magnesium industry has consequently experienced a rapid development in the last 20 years [1,2], indicating a large growth in demand for Mg alloys all over the world. Nowadays, the use of Mg alloys can be found in the fields of automobiles, aerospace, electronics and etc.[3,4]. It has been predicted that the global consumption of Mg metals will further increase in the future, especially in the automotive industry, as the energy efficiency requirement of both traditional and electric vehicles further push manufactures lightweight their design [3,5,6].

The sustained growth in demand for Mg alloys motivated a wide interest in the improvement of the quality and mechanical properties of Mg-alloy castings. During a Mg-alloy casting process, surface turbulence of the melt can lead to the entrapment of a doubled-over surface film containing a small quantity of the surrounding atmosphere, thus forming an entrainment defect (also known as a double oxide film defect or bifilm) [7][8][9][10]. The random size, quantity, orientation, and placement of entrainment defects are widely accepted to be significant factors linked to the variation of casting properties [7]. In addition, Peng et al. [11] found that entrained oxides films in AZ91 alloy melt acted as filters to Al8Mn5 particles, trapping them as they settle. Mackie et al. [12] further suggested that entrained oxide films can act to trawl the intermetallic particles, causing them to cluster and form extremely large defects. The clustering of intermetallic compounds made the entrainment defects more detrimental for the casting properties.

Most of the previous studies regarding entrainment defects were carried out on Al-alloys [7,[13][14][15][16][17][18], and a few potential methods have been suggested for diminishing their negative effect on the quality of Al-alloy castings. Nyahumwa et al.,[16] shows that the void volume within entrainment defects could be reduced by a hot isostatic pressing (HIP) process. Campbell [7] suggested the entrained gas within the defects could be consumed due to reaction with the surrounding melt, which was further verified by Raiszedeh and Griffiths [19].The effect of the entrained gas consumption on the mechanical properties of Al-alloy castings has been investigated by [8,9], suggesting that the consumption of the entrained gas promoted the improvement of the casting reproducibility.

Compared with the investigation concerning the defects within Al-alloys, research into the entrainment defects within Mg-alloys has been significantly limited. The existence of entrainment defects has been demonstrated in Mg-alloy castings [20,21], but their behaviour, evolution, as well as entrained gas consumption are still not clear.

In a Mg-alloy casting process, the melt is usually protected by a cover gas to avoid magnesium ignition. The cavities of sand or investment moulds are accordingly required to be flushed with the cover gas prior to the melt pouring [22]. Therefore, the entrained gas within Mg-alloy castings should contain the cover gas used in the casting process, rather than air only, which may complicate the structure and evolution of the corresponding entrainment defects.

SF6 is a typical cover gas widely used for Mg-alloy casting processes [23][24][25]. Although this cover gas has been restricted to use in European Mg-alloy foundries, a commercial report has pointed out that this cover is still popular in global Mg-alloy industry, especially in the countries which dominated the global Mg-alloy production, such as China, Brazil, India, etc. [26]. In addition, a survey in academic publications also showed that this cover gas was widely used in recent Mg-alloy studies [27]. The protective mechanism of SF6 cover gas (i.e., the reaction between liquid Mg-alloy and SF6 cover gas) has been investigated by several previous researchers, but the formation process of the surface oxide film is still not clearly understood, and even some published results are conflicting with each other. In early 1970s, Fruehling [28] found that the surface film formed under SF6 was MgO mainly with traces of fluorides, and suggested that SF6 was absorbed in the Mg-alloy surface film. Couling [29] further noticed that the absorbed SF6 reacted with the Mg-alloy melt to form MgF2. In last 20 years, different structures of the Mg-alloy surface films have been reported, as detailed below.(1)

Single-layered film. Cashion [30,31] used X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger Spectroscopy (AES) to identify the surface film as MgO and MgF2. He also found that composition of the film was constant throughout the thickness and the whole experimental holding time. The film observed by Cashion had a single-layered structure created from a holding time from 10 min to 100 min.(2)

Double-layered film. Aarstad et. al [32] reported a doubled-layered surface oxide film in 2003. They observed several well-distributed MgF2 particles attached to the preliminary MgO film and grew until they covered 25–50% of the total surface area. The inward diffusion of F through the outer MgO film was the driving force for the evolution process. This double-layered structure was also supported by Xiong’s group [25,33] and Shih et al. [34].(3)

Triple-layered film. The triple-layered film and its evolution process were reported in 2002 by Pettersen [35]. Pettersen found that the initial surface film was a MgO phase and then gradually evolved to the stable MgF2 phase by the inward diffusion of F. In the final stage, the film has a triple-layered structure with a thin O-rich interlayer between the thick top and bottom MgF2 layers.(4)

Oxide film consisted of discrete particles. Wang et al [36] stirred the Mg-alloy surface film into the melt under a SF6 cover gas, and then inspect the entrained surface film after the solidification. They found that the entrained surface films were not continues as the protective surface films reported by other researchers but composed of discrete particles. The young oxide film was composed of MgO nano-sized oxide particles, while the old oxide films consist of coarse particles (about 1  µm in average size) on one side that contained fluorides and nitrides.

The oxide films of a Mg-alloy melt surface or an entrained gas are both formed due to the reaction between liquid Mg-alloy and the cover gas, thus the above-mentioned research regarding the Mg-alloy surface film gives valuable insights into the evolution of entrainment defects. The protective mechanism of SF6 cover gas (i.e., formation of a Mg-alloy surface film) therefore indicated a potential complicated evolution process of the corresponding entrainment defects.

However, it should be noted that the formation of a surface film on a Mg-alloy melt is in a different situation to the consumption of an entrained gas that is submerged into the melt. For example, a sufficient amount of cover gas was supported during the surface film formation in the studies previously mentioned, which suppressed the depletion of the cover gas. In contrast, the amount of entrained gas within a Mg-alloy melt is finite, and the entrained gas may become fully depleted. Mirak [37] introduced 3.5%SF6/air bubbles into a pure Mg-alloy melt solidifying in a specially designed permanent mould. It was found that the gas bubbles were entirely consumed, and the corresponding oxide film was a mixture of MgO and MgF2. However, the nucleation sites (such as the MgF2 spots observed by Aarstad [32] and Xiong [25,33]) were not observed. Mirak also speculated that the MgF2 formed prior to MgO in the oxide film based on the composition analysis, which was opposite to the surface film formation process reported in previous literatures (i.e., MgO formed prior to MgF2). Mirak’s work indicated that the oxide-film formation of an entrained gas may be quite different from that of surface films, but he did not reveal the structure and evolution of the oxide films.

In addition, the use of carrier gas in the cover gases also influenced the reaction between the cover gas and the liquid Mg-alloy. SF6/air required a higher content of SF6 than did a SF6/CO2 carrier gas [38], to avoid the ignition of molten magnesium, revealing different gas-consumption rates. Liang et.al [39] suggested that carbon was formed in the surface film when CO2 was used as a carrier gas, which was different from the films formed in SF6/air. An investigation into Mg combustion [40] reported a detection of Mg2C3 in the Mg-alloy sample after burning in CO2, which not only supported Liang’s results, but also indicated a potential formation of Mg carbides in double oxide film defects.

The work reported here is an investigation into the behaviour and evolution of entrainment defects formed in AZ91 Mg-alloy castings, protected by different cover gases (i.e., SF6/air and SF6/CO2). These carrier gases have different protectability for liquid Mg alloy, which may be therefore associated with different consumption rates and evolution processes of the corresponding entrained gases. The effect of the entrained-gas consumption on the reproducibility of AZ91 castings was also studied.

2. Experiment

2.1. Melting and casting

Three kilograms AZ91 alloy was melted in a mild steel crucible at 700 ± 5 °C. The composition of the AZ91 alloy has been shown in Table 1. Prior to heating, all oxide scale on the ingot surface was removed by machining. The cover gases used were 0.5%SF6/air or 0.5%SF6/CO2 (vol.%) at a flow rate of 6 L/min for different castings. The melt was degassed by argon with a flow rate of 0.3 L/min for 15 min [41,42], and then poured into sand moulds. Prior to pouring, the sand mould cavity was flushed with the cover gas for 20 min [22]. The residual melt (around 1 kg) was solidified in the crucible.

Table 1. Composition (wt.%) of the AZ91 alloy used in this study.

AlZnMnSiFeNiMg
9.40.610.150.020.0050.0017Residual

Fig. 1(a) shows the dimensions of the casting with runners. A top-filling system was deliberately used to generate entrainment defects in the final castings. Green and Campbell [7,43] suggested that a top-filling system caused more entrainment events (i.e., bifilms) during a casting process, compared with a bottom-filling system. A melt flow simulation (Flow-3D software) of this mould, using Reilly’s model [44] regarding the entrainment events, also predicted that a large amount of bifilms would be contained in the final casting (denoted by the black particles in Fig. 1b).

Fig. 1. (a) Dimensions of the casting with runners (unit: mm), (b) a melt flow simulation using Flow-3D software together with Reilly's model[44], predicted that a large amount of bifilms (denoted by the black particles) would be contained in the final casting. (c) A solidification simulation using Pro-cast software showed that no shrinkage defect was contained in the final casting.

Shrinkage defects also affect the mechanical properties and reproducibility of castings. Since this study focused on the effect of bifilms on the casting quality, the mould has been deliberately designed to avoid generating shrinkage defects. A solidification simulation using ProCAST software showed that no shrinkage defect would be contained in the final casting, as shown in Fig. 1c. The casting soundness has also been confirmed using a real time X-ray prior to the test bar machining.

The sand moulds were made from resin-bonded silica sand, containing 1wt. % PEPSET 5230 resin and 1wt. % PEPSET 5112 catalyst. The sand also contained 2 wt.% Na2SiF6 to act as an inhibitor [45]. The pouring temperature was 700 ± 5 °C. After the solidification, a section of the runner bars was sent to the Sci-Lab Analytical Ltd for a H-content analysis (LECO analysis), and all the H-content measurements were carried out on the 5th day after the casting process. Each of the castings was machined into 40 test bars for a tensile strength test, using a Zwick 1484 tensile test machine with a clip extensometer. The fracture surfaces of the broken test bars were examined using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM, Philips JEOL7000) with an accelerating voltage of 5–15 kV. The fractured test bars, residual Mg-alloy solidified in the crucible, and the casting runners were then sectioned, polished and also inspected using the same SEM. The cross-section of the oxide film found on the test-bar fracture surface was exposed by the Focused Ion Beam milling technique (FIB), using a CFEI Quanta 3D FEG FIB-SEM. The oxide film required to be analysed was coated with a platinum layer. Then, a gallium ion beam, accelerated to 30 kV, milled the material substrate surrounding the platinum coated area to expose the cross section of the oxide film. EDS analysis of the oxide film’s cross section was carried out using the FIB equipment at accelerating voltage of 30 kV.

2.2. Oxidation cell

As previously mentioned, several past researchers investigated the protective film formed on a Mg-alloy melt surface [38,39,[46][47][48][49][50][51][52]. During these experiments, the amount of cover gas used was sufficient, thus suppressing the depletion of fluorides in the cover gas. The experiment described in this section used a sealed oxidation cell, which limited the supply of cover gas, to study the evolution of the oxide films of entrainment defects. The cover gas contained in the oxidation cell was regarded as large-size “entrained bubble”.

As shown in Fig. 2, the main body of the oxidation cell was a closed-end mild steel tube which had an inner length of 400 mm, and an inner diameter of 32 mm. A water-cooled copper tube was wrapped around the upper section of the cell. When the tube was heated, the cooling system created a temperature difference between the upper and lower sections, causing the interior gas to convect within the tube. The temperature was monitored by a type-K thermocouple located at the top of the crucible. Nie et al. [53] suggested that the SF6 cover gas would react with the steel wall of the holding furnace when they investigated the surface film of a Mg-alloy melt. To avoid this reaction, the interior surface of the steel oxidation cell (shown in Fig. 2) and the upper half section of the thermocouple were coated with boron nitride (the Mg-alloy was not in contact with boron nitride).

Fig. 2. Schematic of the oxidation cell used to study the evolution of the oxide films of the entrainment defects (unit mm).

During the experiment, a block of solid AZ91 alloy was placed in a magnesia crucible located at the bottom of the oxidation cell. The cell was heated to 100 °C in an electric resistance furnace under a gas flow rate of 1 L/min. The cell was held at this temperature for 20 min, to replace the original trapped atmosphere (i.e. air). Then, the oxidation cell was further heated to 700 °C, melting the AZ91 sample. The gas inlet and exit valves were then closed, creating a sealed environment for oxidation under a limited supply of cover gas. The oxidation cell was then held at 700 ± 10 °C for periods of time from 5 min to 30 min in 5-min intervals. At the end of each holding time, the cell was quenched in water. After cooling to room temperature, the oxidised sample was sectioned, polished, and subsequently examined by SEM.

3. Results

3.1. Structure and composition of the entrainment defects formed in SF6/air

The structure and composition of the entrainment defect formed in the AZ91 castings under a cover gas of 0.5%SF6/air was observed by SEM and EDS. The results indicate that there exist two types of entrainment defects which are sketched in Fig. 3: (1) Type A defect whose oxide film has a traditional single-layered structure and (2) Type B defect, whose oxide film has two layers. The details of these defects were introduced in the following. Here it should be noticed that, as the entrainment defects are also known as biofilms or double oxide film, the oxide films of Type B defect were referred to as “multi-layered oxide film” or “multi-layered structure” in the present work to avoid a confusing description such as “the double-layered oxide film of a double oxide film defect”.

Fig. 3. Schematic of the different types of entrainment defects found in AZ91 castings. (a) Type A defect with a single-layered oxide film and (b) Type B defect with two-layered oxide film.

Fig. 4(a-b) shows a Type A defect having a compact single-layered oxide film with about 0.4 µm thickness. Oxygen, fluorine, magnesium and aluminium were detected in this film (Fig. 4c). It is speculated that oxide film is the mixture of fluoride and oxide of magnesium and aluminium. The detection of fluorine revealed that an entrained cover gas was contained in the formation of this defect. That is to say that the pores shown in Fig. 4(a) were not shrinkage defects or hydrogen porosity, but entrainment defects. The detection of aluminium was different with Xiong and Wang’s previous study [47,48], which showed that no aluminium was contained in their surface film of an AZ91 melt protected by a SF6 cover gas. Sulphur could not be clearly recognized in the element map, but there was a S-peak in the corresponding ESD spectrum.

Fig. 4. (a) A Type A entrainment defect formed in SF6/air and having a single-layered oxide film, (b) the oxide film of this defect, (c) SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the area highlighted in (b).

Fig. 5(a-b) shows a Type B entrainment defect having a multi-layered oxide film. The compact outer layers of the oxide films were enriched with fluorine and oxygen (Fig. 5c), while their relatively porous inner layers were only enriched with oxygen (i.e., poor in fluorine) and partly grew together, thus forming a sandwich-like structure. Therefore, it is speculated that the outer layer is the mixture of fluoride and oxide, while the inner layer is mainly oxide. Sulphur could only be recognized in the EDX spectrum and could not be clearly identified in the element map, which might be due to the small S-content in the cover gas (i.e., 0.5% volume content of SF6 in the cover gas). In this oxide film, aluminium was contained in the outer layer of this oxide film but could not be clearly detected in the inner layer. Moreover, the distribution of Al seems to be uneven. It can be found that, in the right side of the defect, aluminium exists in the film but its concentration can not be identified to be higher than the matrix. However, there is a small area with much higher aluminium concentration in the left side of the defect. Such an uneven distribution of aluminium was also observed in other defects (shown in the following), and it is the result of the formation of some oxide particles in or under the film.

Fig. 5. (a) A Type B entrainment defect formed in SF6/air and having a multi-layered oxide film, (b) the oxide films of this defect have grown together, (c) SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the area shown in (b).

Figs. 4 and 5 show cross sectional observations of the entrainment defects formed in the AZ91 alloy sample cast under a cover gas of SF6/air. It is not sufficient to characterize the entrainment defects only by the figures observed from the two-dimensional section. To have a further understanding, the surface of the entrainment defects (i.e. the oxide film) was further studied by observing the fracture surface of the test bars.

Fig. 6(a) shows fracture surfaces of an AZ91 alloy tensile test bar produced in SF6/air. Symmetrical dark regions can be seen on both sides of the fracture surfaces. Fig. 6(b) shows boundaries between the dark and bright regions. The bright region consisted of jagged and broken features, while the surface of the dark region was relatively smooth and flat. In addition, the EDS results (Fig. 6c-d and Table 2) show that fluorine, oxygen, sulphur, and nitrogen were only detected in the dark regions, indicating that the dark regions were surface protective films entrained into the melt. Therefore, it could be suggested that the dark regions were an entrainment defect with consideration of their symmetrical nature. Similar defects on fracture surfaces of Al-alloy castings have been previously reported [7]Nitrides were only found in the oxide films on the test-bar fracture surfaces but never detected in the cross-sectional samples shown in Figs. 4 and 5. An underlying reason is that the nitrides contained in these samples may have hydrolysed during the sample polishing process [54].

Fig. 6. (a) A pair of the fracture surfaces of a AZ91 alloy tensile test bar produced under a cover gas of SF6/air. The dimension of the fracture surface is 5 mm × 6 mm, (b) a section of the boundary between the dark and bright regions shown in (a), (c-d) EDS spectrum of the (c) bright regions and (d) dark regions, (e) schematic of an entrainment defect contained in a test bar.

Table 2. EDS results (wt.%) corresponding to the regions shown in Fig. 6 (cover gas: SF6/air).

Empty CellCOMgFAlZnSN
Dark region in Fig. 6(b)3.481.3279.130.4713.630.570.080.73
Bright region in Fig. 6(b)3.5884.4811.250.68

In conjunction with the cross-sectional observation of the defects shown in Figs. 4 and 5, the structure of an entrainment defect contained in a tensile test bar was sketched as shown in Fig. 6(e). The defect contained an entrained gas enclosed by its oxide film, creating a void section inside the test bar. When the tensile force applied on the defect during the fracture process, the crack was initiated at the void section and propagated along the entrainment defect, since cracks would be propagated along the weakest path [55]. Therefore, when the test bar was finally fractured, the oxide films of entrainment defect appeared on both fracture surfaces of the test bar, as shown in Fig. 6(a).

3.2. Structure and composition of the entrainment defects formed in SF6/CO2

Similar to the entrainment defect formed in SF6/air, the defects formed under a cover gas of 0.5%SF6/CO2 also had two types of oxide films (i.e., single-layered and multi-layered types). Fig. 7(a) shows an example of the entrainment defects containing a multi-layered oxide film. A magnified observation to the defect (Fig. 7b) shows that the inner layers of the oxide films had grown together, presenting a sandwich-like structure, which was similar to the defects formed in an atmosphere of SF6/air (Fig. 5b). An EDS spectrum (Fig. 7c) revealed that the joint area (inner layer) of this sandwich-like structure mainly contained magnesium oxides. Peaks of fluorine, sulphur, and aluminium were recognized in this EDS spectrum, but their amount was relatively small. In contrast, the outer layers of the oxide films were compact and composed of a mixture of fluorides and oxides (Fig. 7d-e).

Fig. 7. (a) An example of entrainment defects formed in SF6/CO2 and having a multi-layered oxide film, (b) magnified observation of the defect, showing the inner layer of the oxide films has grown together, (c) EDS spectrum of the point denoted in (b), (d) outer layer of the oxide film, (e) SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the area shown in (d).

Fig. 8(a) shows an entrainment defect on the fracture surfaces of an AZ91 alloy tensile test bar, which was produced in an atmosphere of 0.5%SF6/CO2. The corresponding EDS results (Table 3) showed that oxide film contained fluorides and oxides. Sulphur and nitrogen were not detected. Besides, a magnified observation (Fig. 8b) indicated spots on the oxide film surface. The diameter of the spots ranged from hundreds of nanometres to a few micron meters.

Fig. 8. (a) A pair of the fracture surfaces of a AZ91 alloy tensile test bar, produced in an atmosphere of SF6/CO2. The dimension of the fracture surface is 5 mm × 6 mm, (b) surface appearance of the oxide films on the fracture surfaces, showing spots on the film surface.

To further reveal the structure and composition of the oxide film clearly, the cross-section of the oxide film on a test-bar fracture surface was onsite exposed using the FIB technique (Fig. 9). As shown in Fig. 9a, a continuous oxide film was found between the platinum coating layer and the Mg-Al alloy substrate. Fig. 9 (b-c) shows a magnified observation to oxide films, indicating a multi-layered structure (denoted by the red box in Fig. 9c). The bottom layer was enriched with fluorine and oxygen and should be the mixture of fluoride and oxide, which was similar to the “outer layer” shown in Figs. 5 and 7, while the only-oxygen-enriched top layer was similar to the “inner layer” shown in Figs. 5 and 7.

Fig. 9. (a) A cross-sectional observation of the oxide film on the fracture surface of the AZ91 casting produced in SF6/CO2, exposed by FIB, (b) a magnified observation of area highlighted in (a), and (c) SEM-EDS elements map of the area shown in (b), obtained by CFEI Quanta 3D FEG FIB-SEM.

Except the continuous film, some individual particles were also observed in or below the continuous film, as shown in Fig. 9. An Al-enriched particle was detected in the left side of the oxide film shown in Fig. 9b and might be speculated to be spinel Mg2AlO4 because it also contains abundant magnesium and oxygen elements. The existing of such Mg2AlO4 particles is responsible for the high concentration of aluminium in small areas of the observed film and the uneven distribution of aluminium, as shown in Fig. 5(c). Here it should be emphasized that, although the other part of the bottom layer of the continuous oxide film contains less aluminium than this Al-enriched particle, the Fig. 9c indicated that the amount of aluminium in this bottom layer was still non-negligible, especially when comparing with the outer layer of the film. Below the right side of the oxide film shown in Fig. 9b, a particle was detected and speculated to be MgO because it is rich in Mg and O. According to Wang’s result [56], lots of discrete MgO particles can be formed on the surface of the Mg melt by the oxidation of Mg melt and Mg vapor. The MgO particles observed in our present work may be formed due to the same reasons. While, due to the differences in experimental conditions, less Mg melt can be vapored or react with O2, thus only a few of MgO particles formed in our work. An enrichment of carbon was also found in the film, revealing that CO2 was able to react with the melt, thus forming carbon or carbides. This carbon concentration was consistent with the relatively high carbon content of the oxide film shown in Table 3 (i.e., the dark region). In the area next to the oxide film.

Table 3. EDS results (wt.%) corresponding to the regions shown in Fig. 8 (cover gas: SF6/ CO2).

Empty CellCOMgFAlZnSN
Dark region in Fig. 8(a)7.253.6469.823.827.030.86
Bright region in Fig. 8(a)2.100.4482.8313.261.36

This cross-sectional observation of the oxide film on a test bar fracture surface (Fig. 9) further verified the schematic of the entrainment defect shown in Fig. 6(e). The entrainment defects formed in different atmospheres of SF6/CO2 and SF6/air had similar structures, but their compositions were different.

3.3. Evolution of the oxide films in the oxidation cell

The results in Section 3.1 and 3.2 have shown the structures and compositions of entrainment defects formed in AZ91 castings under cover gases of SF6/air and SF6/CO2. Different stages of the oxidation reaction may lead to the different structures and compositions of entrainment defects. Although Campbell has conjectured that an entrained gas may react with the surrounding melt, it is rarely reported that the reaction occurring between the Mg-alloy melt and entrapped cover gas. Previous researchers normally focus on the reaction between a Mg-alloy melt and the cover gas in an open environment [38,39,[46][47][48][49][50][51][52], which was different from the situation of a cover gas trapped into the melt. To further understand the formation of the entrainment defect in an AZ91 alloy, the evolution process of oxide films of the entrainment defect was further studied using an oxidation cell.

Fig. 10 (a and d) shows a surface film held for 5 min in the oxidation cell, protected by 0.5%SF6/air. There was only one single layer consisting of fluoride and oxide (MgF2 and MgO). In this surface film. Sulphur was detected in the EDS spectrum, but its amount was too small to be recognized in the element map. The structure and composition of this oxide film was similar to the single-layered films of entrainment defects shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 10. Oxide films formed in the oxidation cell under a cover gas of 0.5%SF6/air and held at 700 °C for (a) 5 min; (b) 10 min; (c) 30 min, and (d-f) the SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the oxide film shown in (a-c) respectively, (d) 5 min; (e) 10 min; (f) 30 min. The red points in (c and f) are the location references, denoting the boundary of the F-enriched layer in different element maps.

After a holding time of 10 min, a thin (O, S)-enriched top layer (around 700 nm) appeared upon the preliminary F-enriched film, forming a multi-layered structure, as shown in Fig. 10(b and e). The thickness of the (O, S)-enriched top layer increased with increased holding time. As shown in Fig. 10(c and f), the oxide film held for 30 min also had a multi-layered structure, but the thickness of its (O, S)-enriched top layer (around 2.5 µm) was higher than the that of the 10-min oxide film. The multi-layered oxide films shown in Fig. 10(b-c) presented a similar appearance to the films of the sandwich-like defect shown in Fig. 5.

The different structures of the oxide films shown in Fig. 10 indicated that fluorides in the cover gas would be preferentially consumed due to the reaction with the AZ91 alloy melt. After the depletion of fluorides, the residual cover gas reacted further with the liquid AZ91 alloy, forming the top (O, S)-enriched layer in the oxide film. Therefore, the different structures and compositions of entrainment defects shown in Figs. 4 and 5 may be due to an ongoing oxidation reaction between melt and entrapped cover gas.

This multi-layered structure has not been reported in previous publications concerning the protective surface film formed on a Mg-alloy melt [38,[46][47][48][49][50][51]. This may be due to the fact that previous researchers carried out their experiments with an un-limited amount of cover gas, creating a situation where the fluorides in the cover gas were not able to become depleted. Therefore, the oxide film of an entrainment defect had behaviour traits similar to the oxide films shown in Fig. 10, but different from the oxide films formed on the Mg-alloy melt surface reported in [38,[46][47][48][49][50][51].

Similar with the oxide films held in SF6/air, the oxide films formed in SF6/CO2 also had different structures with different holding times in the oxidation cell. Fig. 11(a) shows an oxide film, held on an AZ91 melt surface under a cover gas of 0.5%SF6/CO2 for 5 min. This film had a single-layered structure consisting of MgF2. The existence of MgO could not be confirmed in this film. After the holding time of 30 min, the film had a multi-layered structure; the inner layer was of a compact and uniform appearance and composed of MgF2, while the outer layer is the mixture of MgF2 and MgO. Sulphur was not detected in this film, which was different from the surface film formed in 0.5%SF6/air. Therefore, fluorides in the cover gas of 0.5%SF6/CO2 were also preferentially consumed at an early stage of the film growth process. Compared with the film formed in SF6/air, the MgO in film formed in SF6/CO2 appeared later and sulphide did not appear within 30 min. It may mean that the formation and evolution of film in SF6/air is faster than SF6/CO2. CO2 may have subsequently reacted with the melt to form MgO, while sulphur-containing compounds accumulated in the cover gas and reacted to form sulphide in very late stage (may after 30 min in oxidation cell).

Fig. 11. Oxide films formed in the oxidation cell under a cover gas of 0.5%SF6/CO2, and their SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000). They were held at 700 °C for (a) 5 min; (b) 30 min. The red points in (b) are the location references, denoting the boundary between the top and bottom layers in the oxide film.

4. Discussion

4.1. Evolution of entrainment defects formed in SF6/air

HSC software from Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows (http://www.hsc-chemistry.net/) was used to carry out thermodynamic calculations needed to explore the reactions which might occur between the trapped gases and liquid AZ91 alloy. The solutions to the calculations suggest which products are most likely to form in the reaction process between a small amount of cover gas (i.e., the amount within a trapped bubble) and the AZ91-alloy melt.

In the trials, the pressure was set to 1 atm, and the temperature set to 700 °C. The amount of the cover gas was assumed to be 7 × 10−7 kg, with a volume of approximately 0.57 cm3 (3.14 × 10−8 kmol) for 0.5%SF6/air, and 0.35 cm3 (3.12 × 10−8 kmol) for 0.5%SF6/CO2. The amount of the AZ91 alloy melt in contact with the trapped gas was assumed to be sufficient to complete all reactions. The decomposition products of SF6 were SF5, SF4, SF3, SF2, F2, S(g), S2(g) and F(g) [57][58][59][60].

Fig. 12 shows the equilibrium diagram of the thermodynamic calculation of the reaction between the AZ91 alloy and 0.5%SF6/air. In the diagram, the reactants and products with less than 10−15 kmol have not been shown, as this was 5 orders of magnitude less than the amount of SF6 present (≈ 1.57 × 10−10 kmol) and therefore would not affect the observed process in a practical way.

Fig. 12. An equilibrium diagram for the reaction between 7e-7 kg 0.5%SF6/air and a sufficient amount of AZ91 alloy. The X axis is the amount of AZ91 alloy melt having reacted with the entrained gas, and the vertical Y-axis is the amount of the reactants and products.

This reaction process could be divided into 3 stages.

Stage 1: The formation of fluorides. the AZ91 melt preferentially reacted with SF6 and its decomposition products, producing MgF2, AlF3, and ZnF2. However, the amount of ZnF2 may have been too small to be detected practically (1.25 × 10−12 kmol of ZnF2 compared with 3 × 10−10 kmol of MgF2), which may be the reason why Zn was not detected in any the oxide films shown in Sections 3.13.3. Meanwhile, sulphur accumulated in the residual gas as SO2.

Stage 2: The formation of oxides. After the liquid AZ91 alloy had depleted all the available fluorides in the entrapped gas, the amount of AlF3 and ZnF2 quickly reduced due to a reaction with Mg. O2(g) and SO2 reacted with the AZ91 melt, forming MgO, Al2O3, MgAl2O4, ZnO, ZnSO4 and MgSO4. However, the amount of ZnO and ZnSO4 would have been too small to be found practically by EDS (e.g. 9.5 × 10−12 kmol of ZnO,1.38 × 10−14 kmol of ZnSO4, in contrast to 4.68 × 10−10 kmol of MgF2, when the amount of AZ91 on the X-axis is 2.5 × 10−9 kmol). In the experimental cases, the concentration of F in the cover gas is very low, whole the concentration f O is much higher. Therefore, the stage 1 and 2, i.e, the formation of fluoride and oxide may happen simultaneously at the beginning of the reaction, resulting in the formation of a singer-layered mixture of fluoride and oxide, as shown in Figs. 4 and 10(a). While an inner layer consisted of oxides but fluorides could form after the complete depletion of F element in the cover gas.

Stages 1- 2 theoretically verified the formation process of the multi-layered structure shown in Fig. 10.

The amount of MgAl2O4 and Al2O3 in the oxide film was of a sufficient amount to be detected, which was consistent with the oxide films shown in Fig. 4. However, the existence of aluminium could not be recognized in the oxide films grown in the oxidation cell, as shown in Fig. 10. This absence of Al may be due to the following reactions between the surface film and AZ91 alloy melt:(1)

Al2O3 + 3Mg + = 3MgO + 2Al, △G(700 °C) = -119.82 kJ/mol(2)

Mg + MgAl2O4 = MgO + Al, △G(700 °C) =-106.34 kJ/molwhich could not be simulated by the HSC software since the thermodynamic calculation was carried out under an assumption that the reactants were in full contact with each other. However, in a practical process, the AZ91 melt and the cover gas would not be able to be in contact with each other completely, due to the existence of the protective surface film.

Stage 3: The formation of Sulphide and nitride. After a holding time of 30 min, the gas-phase fluorides and oxides in the oxidation cell had become depleted, allowing the melt reaction with the residual gas, forming an additional sulphur-enriched layer upon the initial F-enriched or (F, O)-enriched surface film, thus resulting in the observed multi-layered structure shown in Fig. 10 (b and c). Besides, nitrogen reacted with the AZ91 melt until all reactions were completed. The oxide film shown in Fig. 6 may correspond to this reaction stage due to its nitride content. However, the results shows that the nitrides were not detected in the polished samples shown in Figs. 4 and 5, but only found on the test bar fracture surfaces. The nitrides may have hydrolysed during the sample preparation process, as follows [54]:(3)

Mg3N2 + 6H2O =3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3↑(4)

AlN+ 3H2O =Al(OH)3 + NH3

In addition, Schmidt et al. [61] found that Mg3N2 and AlN could react to form ternary nitrides (Mg3AlnNn+2, n= 1, 2, 3…). HSC software did not contain the database of ternary nitrides, and it could not be added into the calculation. The oxide films in this stage may also contain ternary nitrides.

4.2. Evolution of entrainment defects formed in SF6/CO2

Fig. 13 shows the results of the thermodynamic calculation between AZ91 alloy and 0.5%SF6/CO2. This reaction processes can also be divided into three stages.

Fig. 13. An equilibrium diagram for the reaction between 7e-7 kg 0.5%SF6/CO2 and a sufficient amount of AZ91 alloy. The X axis denotes the amount of Mg alloy melt having reacted with the entrained gas, and the vertical Y-axis denotes the amounts of the reactants and products.

Stage 1: The formation of fluorides. SF6 and its decomposition products were consumed by the AZ91 melt, forming MgF2, AlF3, and ZnF2. As in the reaction of AZ91 in 0.5%SF6/air, the amount of ZnF2 was too small to be detected practically (1.51 × 10−13 kmol of ZnF2 compared with 2.67 × 10−10 kmol of MgF2). Sulphur accumulated in the residual trapped gas as S2(g) and a portion of the S2(g) reacted with CO2, to form SO2 and CO. The products in this reaction stage were consistent with the film shown in Fig. 11(a), which had a single layer structure that contained fluorides only.

Stage 2: The formation of oxides. AlF3 and ZnF2 reacted with the Mg in the AZ91 melt, forming MgF2, Al and Zn. The SO2 began to be consumed, producing oxides in the surface film and S2(g) in the cover gas. Meanwhile, the CO2 directly reacted with the AZ91 melt, forming CO, MgO, ZnO, and Al2O3. The oxide films shown in Figs. 9 and 11(b) may correspond to this reaction stage due to their oxygen-enriched layer and multi-layered structure.

The CO in the cover gas could further react with the AZ91 melt, producing C. This carbon may further react with Mg to form Mg carbides, when the temperature reduced (during solidification period) [62]. This may be the reason for the high carbon content in the oxide film shown in Figs. 89. Liang et al. [39] also reported carbon-detection in an AZ91 alloy surface film protected by SO2/CO2. The produced Al2O3 may be further combined with MgO, forming MgAl2O4 [63]. As discussed in Section 4.1, the alumina and spinel can react with Mg, causing an absence of aluminium in the surface films, as shown in Fig. 11.

Stage 3: The formation of Sulphide. the AZ91 melt began to consume S2(g) in the residual entrapped gas, forming ZnS and MgS. These reactions did not occur until the last stage of the reaction process, which could be the reason why the S-content in the defect shown Fig. 7(c) was small.

In summary, thermodynamic calculations indicate that the AZ91 melt will react with the cover gas to form fluorides firstly, then oxides and sulphides in the last. The oxide film in the different reaction stages would have different structures and compositions.

4.3. Effect of the carrier gases on consumption of the entrained gas and the reproducibility of AZ91 castings

The evolution processes of entrainment defects, formed in SF6/air and SF6/CO2, have been suggested in Sections 4.1 and 4.2. The theoretical calculations were verified with respect to the corresponding oxide films found in practical samples. The atmosphere within an entrainment defect could be efficiently consumed due to the reaction with liquid Mg-alloy, in a scenario dissimilar to the Al-alloy system (i.e., nitrogen in an entrained air bubble would not efficiently react with Al-alloy melt [64,65], however, nitrogen would be more readily consumed in liquid Mg alloys, commonly referred to as “nitrogen burning” [66]).

The reaction between the entrained gas and the surrounding liquid Mg-alloy converted the entrained gas into solid compounds (e.g. MgO) within the oxide film, thus reducing the void volume of the entrainment defect and hence probably causing a collapse of the defect (e.g., if an entrained gas of air was depleted by the surrounding liquid Mg-alloy, under an assumption that the melt temperature is 700 °C and the depth of liquid Mg-alloy is 10 cm, the total volume of the final solid products would be 0.044% of the initial volume taken by the entrapped air).

The relationship between the void volume reduction of entrainment defects and the corresponding casting properties has been widely studied in Al-alloy castings. Nyahumwa and Campbell [16] reported that the Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) process caused the entrainment defects in Al-alloy castings to collapse and their oxide surfaces forced into contact. The fatigue lives of their castings were improved after HIP. Nyahumwa and Campbell [16] also suggested a potential bonding of the double oxide films that were in contact with each other, but there was no direct evidence to support this. This binding phenomenon was further investigated by Aryafar et.al.[8], who re-melted two Al-alloy bars with oxide skins in a steel tube and then carried out a tensile strength test on the solidified sample. They found that the oxide skins of the Al-alloy bars strongly bonded with each other and became even stronger with an extension of the melt holding time, indicating a potential “healing” phenomenon due to the consumption of the entrained gas within the double oxide film structure. In addition, Raidszadeh and Griffiths [9,19] successfully reduced the negative effect of entrainment defects on the reproducibility of Al-alloy castings, by extending the melt holding time before solidification, which allowed the entrained gas to have a longer time to react with the surrounding melt.

With consideration of the previous work mentioned, the consumption of the entrained gas in Mg-alloy castings may diminish the negative effect of entrainment defects in the following two ways.

(1) Bonding phenomenon of the double oxide films. The sandwich-like structure shown in Fig. 5 and 7 indicated a potential bonding of the double oxide film structure. However, more evidence is required to quantify the increase in strength due to the bonding of the oxide films.

(2) Void volume reduction of entrainment defects. The positive effect of void-volume reduction on the quality of castings has been widely demonstrated by the HIP process [67]. As the evolution processes discussed in Section 4.14.2, the oxide films of entrainment defects can grow together due to an ongoing reaction between the entrained gas and surrounding AZ91 alloy melt. The volume of the final solid products was significant small compared with the entrained gas (i.e., 0.044% as previously mentioned).

Therefore, the consumption rate of the entrained gas (i.e., the growth rate of oxide films) may be a critical parameter for improving the quality of AZ91 alloy castings. The oxide film growth rate in the oxidization cell was accordingly further investigated.

Fig. 14 shows a comparison of the surface film growth rates in different cover gases (i.e., 0.5%SF6/air and 0.5%SF6/CO2). 15 random points on each sample were selected for film thickness measurements. The 95% confidence interval (95%CI) was computed under an assumption that the variation of the film thickness followed a Gaussian distribution. It can be seen that all the surface films formed in 0.5%SF6/air grew faster than those formed in 0.5%SF6/CO2. The different growth rates suggested that the entrained-gas consumption rate of 0.5%SF6/air was higher than that of 0.5%SF6/CO2, which was more beneficial for the consumption of the entrained gas.

Fig. 14. A comparison of the AZ91 alloy oxide film growth rates in 0.5%SF6/air and 0.5%SF6/CO2

It should be noted that, in the oxidation cell, the contact area of liquid AZ91 alloy and cover gas (i.e. the size of the crucible) was relatively small with consideration of the large volume of melt and gas. Consequently, the holding time for the oxide film growth within the oxidation cell was comparatively long (i.e., 5–30 min). However, the entrainment defects contained in a real casting are comparatively very small (i.e., a few microns size as shown in Figs. 36, and [7]), and the entrained gas is fully enclosed by the surrounding melt, creating a relatively large contact area. Hence the reaction time for cover gas and the AZ91 alloy melt may be comparatively short. In addition, the solidification time of real Mg-alloy sand castings can be a few minutes (e.g. Guo [68] reported that a Mg-alloy sand casting with 60 mm diameter required 4 min to be solidified). Therefore, it can be expected that an entrained gas trapped during an Mg-alloy melt pouring process will be readily consumed by the surrounding melt, especially for sand castings and large-size castings, where solidification times are long.

Therefore, the different cover gases (0.5%SF6/air and 0.5%SF6/CO2) associated with different consumption rates of the entrained gases may affect the reproducibility of the final castings. To verify this assumption, the AZ91 castings produced in 0.5%SF6/air and 0.5%SF6/CO2 were machined into test bars for mechanical evaluation. A Weibull analysis was carried out using both linear least square (LLS) method and non-linear least square (non-LLS) method [69].

Fig. 15(a-b) shows a traditional 2-p linearized Weibull plot of the UTS and elongation of the AZ91 alloy castings, obtained by the LLS method. The estimator used is P= (i-0.5)/N, which was suggested to cause the lowest bias among all the popular estimators [69,70]. The casting produced in SF6/air has an UTS Weibull moduli of 16.9, and an elongation Weibull moduli of 5.0. In contrast, the UTS and elongation Weibull modulus of the casting produced in SF6/CO2 are 7.7 and 2.7 respectively, suggesting that the reproducibility of the casting protected by SF6/CO2 were much lower than that produced in SF6/air.

Fig. 15. The Weibull modulus of AZ91 castings produced in different atmospheres, estimated by (a-b) the linear least square method, (c-d) the non-linear least square method, where SSR is the sum of residual squares.

In addition, the author’s previous publication [69] demonstrated a shortcoming of the linearized Weibull plots, which may cause a higher bias and incorrect R2 interruption of the Weibull estimation. A Non-LLS Weibull estimation was therefore carried out, as shown in Fig. 15 (c-d). The UTS Weibull modulus of the SF6/air casting was 20.8, while the casting produced under SF6/CO2 had a lower UTS Weibull modulus of 11.4, showing a clear difference in their reproducibility. In addition, the SF6/air elongation (El%) dataset also had a Weibull modulus (shape = 5.8) higher than the elongation dataset of SF6/CO2 (shape = 3.1). Therefore, both the LLS and Non-LLS estimations suggested that the SF6/air casting has a higher reproducibility than the SF6/CO2 casting. It supports the method that the use of air instead of CO2 contributes to a quicker consumption of the entrained gas, which may reduce the void volume within the defects. Therefore, the use of 0.5%SF6/air instead of 0.5%SF6/CO2 (which increased the consumption rate of the entrained gas) improved the reproducibility of the AZ91 castings.

However, it should be noted that not all the Mg-alloy foundries followed the casting process used in present work. The Mg-alloy melt in present work was degassed, thus reducing the effect of hydrogen on the consumption of the entrained gas (i.e., hydrogen could diffuse into the entrained gas, potentially suppressing the depletion of the entrained gas [7,71,72]). In contrast, in Mg-alloy foundries, the Mg-alloy melt is not normally degassed, since it was widely believed that there is not a ‘gas problem’ when casting magnesium and hence no significant change in tensile properties [73]. Although studies have shown the negative effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of Mg-alloy castings [41,42,73], a degassing process is still not very popular in Mg-alloy foundries.

Moreover, in present work, the sand mould cavity was flushed with the SF6 cover gas prior to pouring [22]. However, not all the Mg-alloy foundries flushed the mould cavity in this way. For example, the Stone Foundry Ltd (UK) used sulphur powder instead of the cover-gas flushing. The entrained gas within their castings may be SO2/air, rather than the protective gas.

Therefore, although the results in present work have shown that using air instead of CO2 improved the reproducibility of the final casting, it still requires further investigations to confirm the effect of carrier gases with respect to different industrial Mg-alloy casting processes.

7. Conclusion

Entrainment defects formed in an AZ91 alloy were observed. Their oxide films had two types of structure: single-layered and multi-layered. The multi-layered oxide film can grow together forming a sandwich-like structure in the final casting.2.

Both the experimental results and the theoretical thermodynamic calculations demonstrated that fluorides in the trapped gas were depleted prior to the consumption of sulphur. A three-stage evolution process of the double oxide film defects has been suggested. The oxide films contained different combinations of compounds, depending on the evolution stage. The defects formed in SF6/air had a similar structure to those formed in SF6/CO2, but the compositions of their oxide films were different. The oxide-film formation and evolution process of the entrainment defects were different from that of the Mg-alloy surface films previous reported (i.e., MgO formed prior to MgF2).3.

The growth rate of the oxide film was demonstrated to be greater under SF6/air than SF6/CO2, contributing to a quicker consumption of the damaging entrapped gas. The reproducibility of an AZ91 alloy casting improved when using SF6/air instead of SF6/CO2.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge funding from the EPSRC LiME grant EP/H026177/1, and the help from Dr W.D. Griffiths and Mr. Adrian Carden (University of Birmingham). The casting work was carried out in University of Birmingham.

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Fig. 1. Schematic of lap welding for 6061/5182 aluminum alloys.

알루미늄 합금 겹침 용접 중 용접 형성, 용융 흐름 및 입자 구조에 대한 사인파 발진 레이저 빔의 영향

린 첸 가오 양 미시 옹 장 춘밍 왕
Lin Chen , Gaoyang Mi , Xiong Zhang , Chunming Wang *
중국 우한시 화중과학기술대학 재료공학부, 430074

Effects of sinusoidal oscillating laser beam on weld formation, melt flow and grain structure during aluminum alloys lap welding

Abstract

A numerical model of 1.5 mm 6061/5182 aluminum alloys thin sheets lap joints under laser sinusoidal oscillation (sine) welding and laser welding (SLW) weld was developed to simulate temperature distribution and melt flow. Unlike the common energy distribution of SLW, the sinusoidal oscillation of laser beam greatly homogenized the energy distribution and reduced the energy peak. The energy peaks were located at both sides of the sine weld, resulting in the tooth-shaped sectional formation. This paper illustrated the effect of the temperature gradient (G) and solidification rate (R) on the solidification microstructure by simulation. Results indicated that the center of the sine weld had a wider area with low G/R, promoting the formation of a wider equiaxed grain zone, and the columnar grains were slenderer because of greater GR. The porosity-free and non-penetration welds were obtained by the laser sinusoidal oscillation. The reasons were that the molten pool volume was enlarged, the volume proportion of keyhole was reduced and the turbulence in the molten pool was gentled, which was observed by the high-speed imaging and simulation results of melt flow. The tensile test of both welds showed a tensile fracture form along the fusion line, and the tensile strength of sine weld was significantly better than that of the SLW weld. This was because that the wider equiaxed grain area reduced the tendency of cracks and the finer grain size close to the fracture location. Defect-free and excellent welds are of great significance to the new energy vehicles industry.

온도 분포 및 용융 흐름을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 레이저 사인파 진동 (사인) 용접 및 레이저 용접 (SLW) 용접에서 1.5mm 6061/5182 알루미늄 합금 박판 랩 조인트 의 수치 모델이 개발되었습니다. SLW의 일반적인 에너지 분포와 달리 레이저 빔의 사인파 진동은 에너지 분포를 크게 균질화하고 에너지 피크를 줄였습니다. 에너지 피크는 사인 용접의 양쪽에 위치하여 톱니 모양의 단면이 형성되었습니다. 이 논문은 온도 구배(G)와 응고 속도 의 영향을 설명했습니다.(R) 시뮬레이션에 의한 응고 미세 구조. 결과는 사인 용접의 중심이 낮은 G/R로 더 넓은 영역을 가짐으로써 더 넓은 등축 결정립 영역의 형성을 촉진하고 더 큰 GR로 인해 주상 결정립 이 더 가늘다는 것을 나타냅니다. 다공성 및 비관통 용접은 레이저 사인파 진동에 의해 얻어졌습니다. 그 이유는 용융 풀의 부피가 확대되고 열쇠 구멍의 부피 비율이 감소하며 용융 풀의 난류가 완만해졌기 때문이며, 이는 용융 흐름의 고속 이미징 및 시뮬레이션 결과에서 관찰되었습니다. 두 용접부 의 인장시험 은 융착선을 따라 인장파괴형태를인장강도사인 용접의 경우 SLW 용접보다 훨씬 우수했습니다. 이는 등축 결정립 영역이 넓을수록 균열 경향이 감소하고 파단 위치에 근접한 입자 크기가 미세 하기 때문입니다. 결함이 없고 우수한 용접은 신에너지 자동차 산업에 매우 중요합니다.

Fig. 1. Schematic of lap welding for 6061/5182 aluminum alloys.
Fig. 1. Schematic of lap welding for 6061/5182 aluminum alloys.
Fig. 2. Finite element mesh.
Fig. 2. Finite element mesh.
Fig. 3. Weld morphologies of cross-section and upper surface for the two welds: (a) sine pattern weld; (b) SLW weld.
Fig. 3. Weld morphologies of cross-section and upper surface for the two welds: (a) sine pattern weld; (b) SLW weld.
Fig. 4. Calculation of laser energy distribution: (a)-(c) sine pattern weld; (d)-(f) SLW weld.
Fig. 4. Calculation of laser energy distribution: (a)-(c) sine pattern weld; (d)-(f) SLW weld.
Fig. 5. The partially melted region of zone A.
Fig. 5. The partially melted region of zone A.
Fig. 6. The simulated profiles of melted region for the two welds: (a) SLW weld; (b) sine pattern weld.
Fig. 6. The simulated profiles of melted region for the two welds: (a) SLW weld; (b) sine pattern weld.
Fig. 7. The temperature field simulation results of cross section for sine pattern weld.
Fig. 7. The temperature field simulation results of cross section for sine pattern weld.
Fig. 8. Dynamic behavior of the molten pool at the same time interval of 0.004 s within one oscillating period: (a) SLW weld; (b) sine pattern weld.
Fig. 8. Dynamic behavior of the molten pool at the same time interval of 0.004 s within one oscillating period: (a) SLW weld; (b) sine pattern weld.
Fig. 9. The temperature field and flow field of the molten pool for the SLW weld: (a)~(f) t = 80 ms~100 ms.
Fig. 9. The temperature field and flow field of the molten pool for the SLW weld: (a)~(f) t = 80 ms~100 ms.
Fig. 10. The temperature field and flow field of the molten pool for the sine pattern weld: (a)~(f) t = 151 ms~171 ms.
Fig. 10. The temperature field and flow field of the molten pool for the sine pattern weld: (a)~(f) t = 151 ms~171 ms.
Fig. 11. The evolution of the molten pool volume and keyhole depth within one period.
Fig. 11. The evolution of the molten pool volume and keyhole depth within one period.
Fig. 12. The X-ray inspection results for the two welds: (a) SLW weld, (b) sine pattern weld.
Fig. 12. The X-ray inspection results for the two welds: (a) SLW weld, (b) sine pattern weld.
Fig. 13. Comparison of the solidification parameters for sine and SLW patterns: (a) the temperature field simulated results of the molten pool upper surfaces; (b) temperature gradient G and solidification rate R along the molten pool boundary isotherm from weld centerline to the fusion boundary; (c) G/R; (d) GR.
Fig. 13. Comparison of the solidification parameters for sine and SLW patterns: (a) the temperature field simulated results of the molten pool upper surfaces; (b) temperature gradient G and solidification rate R along the molten pool boundary isotherm from weld centerline to the fusion boundary; (c) G/R; (d) GR.
Fig. 14. The EBSD results of equiaxed grain zone in the weld center of: (a) sine pattern weld; (b) SLW weld; (c) grain size.
Fig. 14. The EBSD results of equiaxed grain zone in the weld center of: (a) sine pattern weld; (b) SLW weld; (c) grain size.
Fig. 15. (a) EBSD results of horizontal sections of SLW weld and sine pattern weld; (b) The columnar crystal widths of SLW weld and sine pattern weld.
Fig. 15. (a) EBSD results of horizontal sections of SLW weld and sine pattern weld; (b) The columnar crystal widths of SLW weld and sine pattern weld.
Fig. 16. (a) The tensile test results of the two welds; (b) Fracture location of SLW weld; (b) Fracture location of sine pattern weld.
Fig. 16. (a) The tensile test results of the two welds; (b) Fracture location of SLW weld; (b) Fracture location of sine pattern weld.

Keywords

Laser welding, Sinusoidal oscillating, Energy distribution, Numerical simulation, Molten pool flow, Grain structure

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Fig. 1. Schematic figure showing the PREP with additional gas flowing on the end face of electrode.

플라즈마 회전 전극 공정 중 분말 형성에 대한 공정 매개변수 및 냉각 가스의 영향

Effects of process parameters and cooling gas on powder formation during the plasma rotating electrode process

Yujie Cuia Yufan Zhaoa1 Haruko Numatab Kenta Yamanakaa Huakang Biana Kenta Aoyagia AkihikoChibaa
aInstitute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, JapanbDepartment of Materials Processing, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan

Highlights

•The limitation of increasing the rotational speed in decreasing powder size was clarified.

•Cooling and disturbance effects varied with the gas flowing rate.

•Inclined angle of the residual electrode end face affected powder formation.

•Additional cooling gas flowing could be applied to control powder size.

Abstract

The plasma rotating electrode process (PREP) is rapidly becoming an important powder fabrication method in additive manufacturing. However, the low production rate of fine PREP powder limits the development of PREP. Herein, we investigated different factors affecting powder formation during PREP by combining experimental methods and numerical simulations. The limitation of increasing the rotation electrode speed in decreasing powder size is attributed to the increased probability of adjacent droplets recombining and the decreased tendency of granulation. The effects of additional Ar/He gas flowing on the rotational electrode on powder formation is determined through the cooling effect, the disturbance effect, and the inclined effect of the residual electrode end face simultaneously. A smaller-sized powder was obtained in the He atmosphere owing to the larger inclined angle of the residual electrode end face compared to the Ar atmosphere. Our research highlights the route for the fabrication of smaller-sized powders using PREP.

플라즈마 회전 전극 공정(PREP)은 적층 제조 에서 중요한 분말 제조 방법으로 빠르게 자리잡고 있습니다. 그러나 미세한 PREP 분말의 낮은 생산율은 PREP의 개발을 제한합니다. 여기에서 우리는 실험 방법과 수치 시뮬레이션을 결합하여 PREP 동안 분말 형성에 영향을 미치는 다양한 요인을 조사했습니다. 분말 크기 감소에서 회전 전극 속도 증가의 한계는 인접한 액적 재결합 확률 증가 및 과립화 경향 감소에 기인합니다.. 회전 전극에 흐르는 추가 Ar/He 가스가 분말 형성에 미치는 영향은 냉각 효과, 외란 효과 및 잔류 전극 단면의 경사 효과를 통해 동시에 결정됩니다. He 분위기에서는 Ar 분위기에 비해 잔류 전극 단면의 경사각이 크기 때문에 더 작은 크기의 분말이 얻어졌다. 우리의 연구는 PREP를 사용하여 더 작은 크기의 분말을 제조하는 경로를 강조합니다.

Keywords

Plasma rotating electrode process

Ti-6Al-4 V alloy, Rotating speed, Numerical simulation, Gas flowing, Powder size

Introduction

With the development of additive manufacturing, there has been a significant increase in high-quality powder production demand [1,2]. The initial powder characteristics are closely related to the uniform powder spreading [3,4], packing density [5], and layer thickness observed during additive manufacturing [6], thus determining the mechanical properties of the additive manufactured parts [7,8]. Gas atomization (GA) [9–11], centrifugal atomization (CA) [12–15], and the plasma rotating electrode process (PREP) are three important powder fabrication methods.

Currently, GA is the dominant powder fabrication method used in additive manufacturing [16] for the fabrication of a wide range of alloys [11]. GA produces powders by impinging a liquid metal stream to droplets through a high-speed gas flow of nitrogen, argon, or helium. With relatively low energy consumption and a high fraction of fine powders, GA has become the most popular powder manufacturing technology for AM.

The entrapped gas pores are generally formed in the powder after solidification during GA, in which the molten metal is impacted by a high-speed atomization gas jet. In addition, satellites are formed in GA powder when fine particles adhere to partially molten particles.

The gas pores of GA powder result in porosity generation in the additive manufactured parts, which in turn deteriorates its mechanical properties because pores can become crack initiation sites [17]. In CA, a molten metal stream is poured directly onto an atomizer disc spinning at a high rotational speed. A thin film is formed on the surface of the disc, which breaks into small droplets due to the centrifugal force. Metal powder is obtained when these droplets solidify.

Compared with GA powder, CA powder exhibits higher sphericity, lower impurity content, fewer satellites, and narrower particle size distribution [12]. However, very high speed is required to obtain fine powder by CA. In PREP, the molten metal, melted using the plasma arc, is ejected from the rotating rod through centrifugal force. Compared with GA powder, PREP-produced powders also have higher sphericity and fewer pores and satellites [18].

For instance, PREP-fabricated Ti6Al-4 V alloy powder with a powder size below 150 μm exhibits lower porosity than gas-atomized powder [19], which decreases the porosity of additive manufactured parts. Furthermore, the process window during electron beam melting was broadened using PREP powder compared to GA powder in Inconel 718 alloy [20] owing to the higher sphericity of the PREP powder.

In summary, PREP powder exhibits many advantages and is highly recommended for powder-based additive manufacturing and direct energy deposition-type additive manufacturing. However, the low production rate of fine PREP powder limits the widespread application of PREP powder in additive manufacturing.

Although increasing the rotating speed is an effective method to decrease the powder size [21,22], the reduction in powder size becomes smaller with the increased rotating speed [23]. The occurrence of limiting effects has not been fully clarified yet.

Moreover, the powder size can be decreased by increasing the rotating electrode diameter [24]. However, these methods are quite demanding for the PREP equipment. For instance, it is costly to revise the PREP equipment to meet the demand of further increasing the rotating speed or electrode diameter.

Accordingly, more feasible methods should be developed to further decrease the PREP powder size. Another factor that influences powder formation is the melting rate [25]. It has been reported that increasing the melting rate decreases the powder size of Inconel 718 alloy [26].

In contrast, the powder size of SUS316 alloy was decreased by decreasing the plasma current within certain ranges. This was ascribed to the formation of larger-sized droplets from fluid strips with increased thickness and spatial density at higher plasma currents [27]. The powder size of NiTi alloy also decreases at lower melting rates [28]. Consequently, altering the melting rate, varied with the plasma current, is expected to regulate the PREP powder size.

Furthermore, gas flowing has a significant influence on powder formation [27,29–31]. On one hand, the disturbance effect of gas flowing promotes fluid granulation, which in turn contributes to the formation of smaller-sized powder [27]. On the other hand, the cooling effect of gas flowing facilitates the formation of large-sized powder due to increased viscosity and surface tension. However, there is a lack of systematic research on the effect of different gas flowing on powder formation during PREP.

Herein, the authors systematically studied the effects of rotating speed, electrode diameter, plasma current, and gas flowing on the formation of Ti-6Al-4 V alloy powder during PREP as additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V alloy exhibits great application potential [32]. Numerical simulations were conducted to explain why increasing the rotating speed is not effective in decreasing powder size when the rotation speed reaches a certain level. In addition, the different factors incited by the Ar/He gas flowing on powder formation were clarified.

Fig. 1. Schematic figure showing the PREP with additional gas flowing on the end face of electrode.
Fig. 1. Schematic figure showing the PREP with additional gas flowing on the end face of electrode.

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Figure 3.10: Snapshots of Temperature Profile for Single Track in Keyhole Regime (P = 250W and V = 0.5m/s) at the Preheating Temperature of 100 °C

Multiscale Process Modeling of Residual Deformation and Defect Formation for Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing

Qian Chen, PhD
University of Pittsburgh, 2021

레이저 분말 베드 퓨전(L-PBF) 적층 제조(AM)는 우수한 기계적 특성으로 그물 모양에 가까운 복잡한 부품을 생산할 수 있습니다. 그러나 빌드 실패 및 다공성과 같은 결함으로 이어지는 원치 않는 잔류 응력 및 왜곡이 L-PBF의 광범위한 적용을 방해하고 있습니다.

L-PBF의 잠재력을 최대한 실현하기 위해 잔류 변형, 용융 풀 및 다공성 형성을 예측하는 다중 규모 모델링 방법론이 개발되었습니다. L-PBF의 잔류 변형 및 응력을 부품 규모에서 예측하기 위해 고유 변형 ​​방법을 기반으로 하는 다중 규모 프로세스 모델링 프레임워크가 제안됩니다.

고유한 변형 벡터는 마이크로 스케일에서 충실도가 높은 상세한 다층 프로세스 시뮬레이션에서 추출됩니다. 균일하지만 이방성인 변형은 잔류 왜곡 및 응력을 예측하기 위해 준 정적 평형 유한 요소 분석(FEA)에서 레이어별로 L-PBF 부품에 적용됩니다.

부품 규모에서의 잔류 변형 및 응력 예측 외에도 분말 규모의 다중물리 모델링을 수행하여 공정 매개변수, 예열 온도 및 스패터링 입자에 의해 유도된 용융 풀 변동 및 결함 형성을 연구합니다. 이러한 요인과 관련된 용융 풀 역학 및 다공성 형성 메커니즘은 시뮬레이션 및 실험을 통해 밝혀졌습니다.

제안된 부품 규모 잔류 응력 및 왜곡 모델을 기반으로 경로 계획 방법은 큰 잔류 변형 및 건물 파손을 방지하기 위해 주어진 형상에 대한 레이저 스캐닝 경로를 조정하기 위해 개발되었습니다.

연속 및 아일랜드 스캐닝 전략을 위한 기울기 기반 경로 계획이 공식화되고 공식화된 컴플라이언스 및 스트레스 최소화 문제에 대한 전체 감도 분석이 수행됩니다. 이 제안된 경로 계획 방법의 타당성과 효율성은 AconityONE L-PBF 시스템을 사용하여 실험적으로 입증되었습니다.

또한 기계 학습을 활용한 데이터 기반 프레임워크를 개발하여 L-PBF에 대한 부품 규모의 열 이력을 예측합니다. 본 연구에서는 실시간 열 이력 예측을 위해 CNN(Convolutional Neural Network)과 RNN(Recurrent Neural Network)을 포함하는 순차적 기계 학습 모델을 제안합니다.

유한 요소 해석과 비교하여 100배의 예측 속도 향상이 달성되어 실제 제작 프로세스보다 빠른 예측이 가능하고 실시간 온도 프로파일을 사용할 수 있습니다.

Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) additive manufacturing (AM) is capable of producing complex parts near net shape with good mechanical properties. However, undesired residual stress and distortion that lead to build failure and defects such as porosity are preventing broader applications of L-PBF. To realize the full potential of L-PBF, a multiscale modeling methodology is developed to predict residual deformation, melt pool, and porosity formation. To predict the residual deformation and stress in L-PBF at part-scale, a multiscale process modeling framework based on inherent strain method is proposed.

Inherent strain vectors are extracted from detailed multi-layer process simulation with high fidelity at micro-scale. Uniform but anisotropic strains are then applied to L-PBF part in a layer-by-layer fashion in a quasi-static equilibrium finite element analysis (FEA) to predict residual distortion and stress. Besides residual distortion and stress prediction at part scale, multiphysics modeling at powder scale is performed to study the melt pool variation and defect formation induced by process parameters, preheating temperature and spattering particles. Melt pool dynamics and porosity formation mechanisms associated with these factors are revealed through simulation and experiments.

Based on the proposed part-scale residual stress and distortion model, path planning method is developed to tailor the laser scanning path for a given geometry to prevent large residual deformation and building failures. Gradient based path planning for continuous and island scanning strategy is formulated and full sensitivity analysis for the formulated compliance- and stress-minimization problem is performed.

The feasibility and effectiveness of this proposed path planning method is demonstrated experimentally using the AconityONE L-PBF system. In addition, a data-driven framework utilizing machine learning is developed to predict the thermal history at part-scale for L-PBF.

In this work, a sequential machine learning model including convolutional neural network (CNN) and recurrent neural network (RNN), long shortterm memory unit, is proposed for real-time thermal history prediction. A 100x prediction speed improvement is achieved compared to the finite element analysis which makes the prediction faster than real fabrication process and real-time temperature profile available.

Figure 1.1: Schematic Overview of Metal Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process [2]
Figure 1.1: Schematic Overview of Metal Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process [2]
Figure 1.2: Commercial Powder Bed Fusion Systems
Figure 1.2: Commercial Powder Bed Fusion Systems
Figure 1.3: Commercial Metal Components Fabricated by Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: (a) GE Fuel Nozzle; (b) Stryker Hip Biomedical Implant.
Figure 1.3: Commercial Metal Components Fabricated by Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: (a) GE Fuel Nozzle; (b) Stryker Hip Biomedical Implant.
Figure 2.1: Proposed Multiscale Process Simulation Framework
Figure 2.1: Proposed Multiscale Process Simulation Framework
Figure 2.2: (a) Experimental Setup for In-situ Thermocouple Measurement in the EOS M290 Build Chamber; (b) Themocouple Locations on the Bottom Side of the Substrate.
Figure 2.2: (a) Experimental Setup for In-situ Thermocouple Measurement in the EOS M290 Build Chamber; (b) Themocouple Locations on the Bottom Side of the Substrate.
Figure 2.3: (a) Finite Element Model for Single Layer Thermal Analysis; (b) Deposition Layer
Figure 2.3: (a) Finite Element Model for Single Layer Thermal Analysis; (b) Deposition Layer
Figure 2.4: Core-skin layer: (a) Surface Morphology; (b) Scanning Strategy; (c) Transient Temperature Distribution and Temperature History at (d) Point 1; (e) Point 2 and (f) Point 3
Figure 2.4: Core-skin layer: (a) Surface Morphology; (b) Scanning Strategy; (c) Transient Temperature Distribution and Temperature History at (d) Point 1; (e) Point 2 and (f) Point 3
Figure 2.5: (a) Scanning Orientation of Each Layer; (b) Finite Element Model for Micro-scale Representative Volume
Figure 2.5: (a) Scanning Orientation of Each Layer; (b) Finite Element Model for Micro-scale Representative Volume
Figure 2.6: Bottom Layer (a) Thermal History; (b) Plastic Strain and (c) Elastic Strain Evolution History
Figure 2.6: Bottom Layer (a) Thermal History; (b) Plastic Strain and (c) Elastic Strain Evolution History
Figure 2.7: Bottom Layer Inherent Strain under Default Process Parameters along Horizontal Scanning Path
Figure 2.7: Bottom Layer Inherent Strain under Default Process Parameters along Horizontal Scanning Path
Figure 2.8: Snapshots of the Element Activation Process
Figure 2.8: Snapshots of the Element Activation Process
Figure 2.9: Double Cantilever Beam Structure Built by the EOS M290 DMLM Process (a) Before and (b) After Cutting off; (c) Faro Laser ScanArm V3 for Distortion Measurement
Figure 2.9: Double Cantilever Beam Structure Built by the EOS M290 DMLM Process (a) Before and (b) After Cutting off; (c) Faro Laser ScanArm V3 for Distortion Measurement
Figure 2.10: Square Canonical Structure Built by the EOS M290 DMLM Process
Figure 2.10: Square Canonical Structure Built by the EOS M290 DMLM Process
Figure 2.11: Finite Element Mesh for the Square Canonical and Snapshots of Element Activation Process
Figure 2.11: Finite Element Mesh for the Square Canonical and Snapshots of Element Activation Process
Figure 2.12: Simulated Distortion Field for the Double Cantilever Beam before Cutting off the Supports: (a) Inherent Strain Method; (b) Simufact Additive 3.1
Figure 2.12: Simulated Distortion Field for the Double Cantilever Beam before Cutting off the Supports: (a) Inherent Strain Method; (b) Simufact Additive 3.1
Figure 3.10: Snapshots of Temperature Profile for Single Track in Keyhole Regime (P = 250W and V = 0.5m/s) at the Preheating Temperature of 100 °C
Figure 3.10: Snapshots of Temperature Profile for Single Track in Keyhole Regime (P = 250W and V = 0.5m/s) at the Preheating Temperature of 100 °C
s) at the Preheating Temperature of 500 °C
s) at the Preheating Temperature of 500 °C
Figure 3.15: Melt Pool Cross Section Comparison Between Simulation and Experiment for Single Track
Figure 3.15: Melt Pool Cross Section Comparison Between Simulation and Experiment for Single Track

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Figure 3 Simulation PTC pipes enhanced with copper foam and nanoparticles in FLOW-3D software.

다공성 미디어 및 나노유체에 의해 강화된 수집기로 태양광 CCHP 시스템의 최적화

Optimization of Solar CCHP Systems with Collector Enhanced by Porous Media and Nanofluid


Navid Tonekaboni,1Mahdi Feizbahr,2 Nima Tonekaboni,1Guang-Jun Jiang,3,4 and Hong-Xia Chen3,4

Abstract

태양열 집열기의 낮은 효율은 CCHP(Solar Combined Cooling, Heating, and Power) 사이클의 문제점 중 하나로 언급될 수 있습니다. 태양계를 개선하기 위해 나노유체와 다공성 매체가 태양열 집열기에 사용됩니다.

다공성 매질과 나노입자를 사용하는 장점 중 하나는 동일한 조건에서 더 많은 에너지를 흡수할 수 있다는 것입니다. 이 연구에서는 평균 일사량이 1b인 따뜻하고 건조한 지역의 600 m2 건물의 전기, 냉방 및 난방을 생성하기 위해 다공성 매질과 나노유체를 사용하여 태양열 냉난방 복합 발전(SCCHP) 시스템을 최적화했습니다.

본 논문에서는 침전물이 형성되지 않는 lb = 820 w/m2(이란) 정도까지 다공성 물질에서 나노유체의 최적량을 계산하였다. 이 연구에서 태양열 집열기는 구리 다공성 매체(95% 다공성)와 CuO 및 Al2O3 나노 유체로 향상되었습니다.

나노유체의 0.1%-0.6%가 작동 유체로 물에 추가되었습니다. 나노유체의 0.5%가 태양열 집열기 및 SCCHP 시스템에서 가장 높은 에너지 및 엑서지 효율 향상으로 이어지는 것으로 밝혀졌습니다.

본 연구에서 포물선형 집열기(PTC)의 최대 에너지 및 엑서지 효율은 각각 74.19% 및 32.6%입니다. 그림 1은 태양 CCHP의 주기를 정확하게 설명하기 위한 그래픽 초록으로 언급될 수 있습니다.

The low efficiency of solar collectors can be mentioned as one of the problems in solar combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP) cycles. For improving solar systems, nanofluid and porous media are used in solar collectors. One of the advantages of using porous media and nanoparticles is to absorb more energy under the same conditions. In this research, a solar combined cooling, heating, and power (SCCHP) system has been optimized by porous media and nanofluid for generating electricity, cooling, and heating of a 600 m2 building in a warm and dry region with average solar radiation of Ib = 820 w/m2 in Iran. In this paper, the optimal amount of nanofluid in porous materials has been calculated to the extent that no sediment is formed. In this study, solar collectors were enhanced with copper porous media (95% porosity) and CuO and Al2O3 nanofluids. 0.1%–0.6% of the nanofluids were added to water as working fluids; it is found that 0.5% of the nanofluids lead to the highest energy and exergy efficiency enhancement in solar collectors and SCCHP systems. Maximum energy and exergy efficiency of parabolic thermal collector (PTC) riches in this study are 74.19% and 32.6%, respectively. Figure 1 can be mentioned as a graphical abstract for accurately describing the cycle of solar CCHP.

1. Introduction

Due to the increase in energy consumption, the use of clean energy is one of the important goals of human societies. In the last four decades, the use of cogeneration cycles has increased significantly due to high efficiency. Among clean energy, the use of solar energy has become more popular due to its greater availability [1]. Low efficiency of energy production, transmission, and distribution system makes a new system to generate simultaneously electricity, heating, and cooling as an essential solution to be widely used. The low efficiency of the electricity generation, transmission, and distribution system makes the CCHP system a basic solution to eliminate waste of energy. CCHP system consists of a prime mover (PM), a power generator, a heat recovery system (produce extra heating/cooling/power), and thermal energy storage (TES) [2]. Solar combined cooling, heating, and power (SCCHP) has been started three decades ago. SCCHP is a system that receives its propulsive force from solar energy; in this cycle, solar collectors play the role of propulsive for generating power in this system [3].

Increasing the rate of energy consumption in the whole world because of the low efficiency of energy production, transmission, and distribution system causes a new cogeneration system to generate electricity, heating, and cooling energy as an essential solution to be widely used. Building energy utilization fundamentally includes power required for lighting, home electrical appliances, warming and cooling of building inside, and boiling water. Domestic usage contributes to an average of 35% of the world’s total energy consumption [4].

Due to the availability of solar energy in all areas, solar collectors can be used to obtain the propulsive power required for the CCHP cycle. Solar energy is the main source of energy in renewable applications. For selecting a suitable area to use solar collectors, annual sunshine hours, the number of sunny days, minus temperature and frosty days, and the windy status of the region are essentially considered [5]. Iran, with an average of more than 300 sunny days, is one of the suitable countries to use solar energy. Due to the fact that most of the solar radiation is in the southern regions of Iran, also the concentration of cities is low in these areas, and transmission lines are far apart, one of the best options is to use CCHP cycles based on solar collectors [6]. One of the major problems of solar collectors is their low efficiency [7]. Low efficiency increases the area of collectors, which increases the initial cost of solar systems and of course increases the initial payback period. To increase the efficiency of solar collectors and improve their performance, porous materials and nanofluids are used to increase their workability.

There are two ways to increase the efficiency of solar collectors and mechanical and fluid improvement. In the first method, using porous materials or helical filaments inside the collector pipes causes turbulence of the flow and increases heat transfer. In the second method, using nanofluids or salt and other materials increases the heat transfer of water. The use of porous materials has grown up immensely over the past twenty years. Porous materials, especially copper porous foam, are widely used in solar collectors. Due to the high contact surface area, porous media are appropriate candidates for solar collectors [8]. A number of researchers investigated Solar System performance in accordance with energy and exergy analyses. Zhai et al. [9] reviewed the performance of a small solar-powered system in which the energy efficiency was 44.7% and the electrical efficiency was 16.9%.

Abbasi et al. [10] proposed an innovative multiobjective optimization to optimize the design of a cogeneration system. Results showed the CCHP system based on an internal diesel combustion engine was the applicable alternative at all regions with different climates. The diesel engine can supply the electrical requirement of 31.0% and heating demand of 3.8% for building.

Jiang et al. [11] combined the experiment and simulation together to analyze the performance of a cogeneration system. Moreover, some research focused on CCHP systems using solar energy. It integrated sustainable and renewable technologies in the CCHP, like PV, Stirling engine, and parabolic trough collector (PTC) [21215].

Wang et al. [16] optimized a cogeneration solar cooling system with a Rankine cycle and ejector to reach the maximum total system efficiency of 55.9%. Jing et al. analyzed a big-scale building with the SCCHP system and auxiliary heaters to produced electrical, cooling, and heating power. The maximum energy efficiency reported in their work is 46.6% [17]. Various optimization methods have been used to improve the cogeneration system, minimum system size, and performance, such as genetic algorithm [1819].

Hirasawa et al. [20] investigated the effect of using porous media to reduce thermal waste in solar systems. They used the high-porosity metal foam on top of the flat plate solar collector and observed that thermal waste decreased by 7% due to natural heat transfer. Many researchers study the efficiency improvement of the solar collector by changing the collector’s shapes or working fluids. However, the most effective method is the use of nanofluids in the solar collector as working fluid [21]. In the experimental study done by Jouybari et al. [22], the efficiency enhancement up to 8.1% was achieved by adding nanofluid in a flat plate collector. In this research, by adding porous materials to the solar collector, collector efficiency increased up to 92% in a low flow regime. Subramani et al. [23] analyzed the thermal performance of the parabolic solar collector with Al2O3 nanofluid. They conducted their experiments with Reynolds number range 2401 to 7202 and mass flow rate 0.0083 to 0.05 kg/s. The maximum efficiency improvement in this experiment was 56% at 0.05 kg/s mass flow rate.

Shojaeizadeh et al. [24] investigated the analysis of the second law of thermodynamic on the flat plate solar collector using Al2O3/water nanofluid. Their research showed that energy efficiency rose up to 1.9% and the exergy efficiency increased by a maximum of 0.72% compared to pure water. Tiwari et al. [25] researched on the thermal performance of solar flat plate collectors for working fluid water with different nanofluids. The result showed that using 1.5% (optimum) particle volume fraction of Al2O3 nanofluid as an absorbing medium causes the thermal efficiency to enhance up to 31.64%.

The effect of porous media and nanofluids on solar collectors has already been investigated in the literature but the SCCHP system with a collector embedded by both porous media and nanofluid for enhancing the ratio of nanoparticle in nanofluid for preventing sedimentation was not discussed. In this research, the amount of energy and exergy of the solar CCHP cycles with parabolic solar collectors in both base and improved modes with a porous material (copper foam with 95% porosity) and nanofluid with different ratios of nanoparticles was calculated. In the first step, it is planned to design a CCHP system based on the required load, and, in the next step, it will analyze the energy and exergy of the system in a basic and optimize mode. In the optimize mode, enhanced solar collectors with porous material and nanofluid in different ratios (0.1%–0.7%) were used to optimize the ratio of nanofluids to prevent sedimentation.

2. Cycle Description

CCHP is one of the methods to enhance energy efficiency and reduce energy loss and costs. The SCCHP system used a solar collector as a prime mover of the cogeneration system and assisted the boiler to generate vapor for the turbine. Hot water flows from the expander to the absorption chiller in summer or to the radiator or fan coil in winter. Finally, before the hot water wants to flow back to the storage tank, it flows inside a heat exchanger for generating domestic hot water [26].

For designing of solar cogeneration system and its analysis, it is necessary to calculate the electrical, heating (heating load is the load required for the production of warm water and space heating), and cooling load required for the case study considered in a residential building with an area of 600 m2 in the warm region of Iran (Zahedan). In Table 1, the average of the required loads is shown for the different months of a year (average of electrical, heating, and cooling load calculated with CARRIER software).Table 1 The average amount of electric charges, heating load, and cooling load used in the different months of the year in the city of Zahedan for a residential building with 600 m2.

According to Table 1, the maximum magnitude of heating, cooling, and electrical loads is used to calculate the cogeneration system. The maximum electric load is 96 kW, the maximum amount of heating load is 62 kW, and the maximum cooling load is 118 kW. Since the calculated loads are average, all loads increased up to 10% for the confidence coefficient. With the obtained values, the solar collector area and other cogeneration system components are calculated. The cogeneration cycle is capable of producing 105 kW electric power, 140 kW cooling capacity, and 100 kW heating power.

2.1. System Analysis Equations

An analysis is done by considering the following assumptions:(1)The system operates under steady-state conditions(2)The system is designed for the warm region of Iran (Zahedan) with average solar radiation Ib = 820 w/m2(3)The pressure drops in heat exchangers, separators, storage tanks, and pipes are ignored(4)The pressure drop is negligible in all processes and no expectable chemical reactions occurred in the processes(5)Potential, kinetic, and chemical exergy are not considered due to their insignificance(6)Pumps have been discontinued due to insignificance throughout the process(7)All components are assumed adiabatic

Schematic shape of the cogeneration cycle is shown in Figure 1 and all data are given in Table 2.

Figure 1 Schematic shape of the cogeneration cycle.Table 2 Temperature and humidity of different points of system.

Based on the first law of thermodynamic, energy analysis is based on the following steps.

First of all, the estimated solar radiation energy on collector has been calculated:where α is the heat transfer enhancement coefficient based on porous materials added to the collector’s pipes. The coefficient α is increased by the porosity percentage, the type of porous material (in this case, copper with a porosity percentage of 95), and the flow of fluid to the collector equation.

Collector efficiency is going to be calculated by the following equation [9]:

Total energy received by the collector is given by [9]

Also, the auxiliary boiler heat load is [2]

Energy consumed from vapor to expander is calculated by [2]

The power output form by the screw expander [9]:

The efficiency of the expander is 80% in this case [11].

In this step, cooling and heating loads were calculated and then, the required heating load to reach sanitary hot water will be calculated as follows:

First step: calculating the cooling load with the following equation [9]:

Second step: calculating heating loads [9]:

Then, calculating the required loud for sanitary hot water will be [9]

According to the above-mentioned equations, efficiency is [9]

In the third step, calculated exergy analysis as follows.

First, the received exergy collector from the sun is calculated [9]:

In the previous equation, f is the constant of air dilution.

The received exergy from the collector is [9]

In the case of using natural gas in an auxiliary heater, the gas exergy is calculated from the following equation [12]:

Delivering exergy from vapor to expander is calculated with the following equation [9]:

In the fourth step, the exergy in cooling and heating is calculated by the following equation:

Cooling exergy in summer is calculated [9]:

Heating exergy in winter is calculated [9]:

In the last step based on thermodynamic second law, exergy efficiency has been calculated from the following equation and the above-mentioned calculated loads [9]:

3. Porous Media

The porous medium that filled the test section is copper foam with a porosity of 95%. The foams are determined in Figure 2 and also detailed thermophysical parameters and dimensions are shown in Table 3.

Figure 2 Copper foam with a porosity of 95%.Table 3 Thermophysical parameters and dimensions of copper foam.

In solar collectors, copper porous materials are suitable for use at low temperatures and have an easier and faster manufacturing process than ceramic porous materials. Due to the high coefficient conductivity of copper, the use of copper metallic foam to increase heat transfer is certainly more efficient in solar collectors.

Porous media and nanofluid in solar collector’s pipes were simulated in FLOW-3D software using the finite-difference method [27]. Nanoparticles Al2O3 and CUO are mostly used in solar collector enhancement. In this research, different concentrations of nanofluid are added to the parabolic solar collectors with porous materials (copper foam with porosity of 95%) to achieve maximum heat transfer in the porous materials before sedimentation. After analyzing PTC pipes with the nanofluid flow in FLOW-3D software, for energy and exergy efficiency analysis, Carrier software results were used as EES software input. Simulation PTC with porous media inside collector pipe and nanofluids sedimentation is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Simulation PTC pipes enhanced with copper foam and nanoparticles in FLOW-3D software.

3.1. Nano Fluid

In this research, copper and silver nanofluids (Al2O3, CuO) have been added with percentages of 0.1%–0.7% as the working fluids. The nanoparticle properties are given in Table 4. Also, system constant parameters are presented in Table 4, which are available as default input in the EES software.Table 4 Properties of the nanoparticles [9].

System constant parameters for input in the software are shown in Table 5.Table 5 System constant parameters.

The thermal properties of the nanofluid can be obtained from equations (18)–(21). The basic fluid properties are indicated by the index (bf) and the properties of the nanoparticle silver with the index (np).

The density of the mixture is shown in the following equation [28]:where ρ is density and ϕ is the nanoparticles volume fraction.

The specific heat capacity is calculated from the following equation [29]:

The thermal conductivity of the nanofluid is calculated from the following equation [29]:

The parameter β is the ratio of the nanolayer thickness to the original particle radius and, usually, this parameter is taken equal to 0.1 for the calculated thermal conductivity of the nanofluids.

The mixture viscosity is calculated as follows [30]:

In all equations, instead of water properties, working fluids with nanofluid are used. All of the above equations and parameters are entered in the EES software for calculating the energy and exergy of solar collectors and the SCCHP cycle. All calculation repeats for both nanofluids with different concentrations of nanofluid in the solar collector’s pipe.

4. Results and Discussion

In the present study, relations were written according to Wang et al. [16] and the system analysis was performed to ensure the correctness of the code. The energy and exergy charts are plotted based on the main values of the paper and are shown in Figures 4 and 5. The error rate in this simulation is 1.07%.

Figure 4 Verification charts of energy analysis results.

Figure 5 Verification charts of exergy analysis results.

We may also investigate the application of machine learning paradigms [3141] and various hybrid, advanced optimization approaches that are enhanced in terms of exploration and intensification [4255], and intelligent model studies [5661] as well, for example, methods such as particle swarm optimizer (PSO) [6062], differential search (DS) [63], ant colony optimizer (ACO) [616465], Harris hawks optimizer (HHO) [66], grey wolf optimizer (GWO) [5367], differential evolution (DE) [6869], and other fusion and boosted systems [4146485054557071].

At the first step, the collector is modified with porous copper foam material. 14 cases have been considered for the analysis of the SCCHP system (Table 6). It should be noted that the adding of porous media causes an additional pressure drop inside the collector [922263072]. All fourteen cases use copper foam with a porosity of 95 percent. To simulate the effect of porous materials and nanofluids, the first solar PTC pipes have been simulated in the FLOW-3D software and then porous media (copper foam with porosity of 95%) and fluid flow with nanoparticles (AL2O3 and CUO) are generated in the software. After analyzing PTC pipes in FLOW-3D software, for analyzing energy and exergy efficiency, software outputs were used as EES software input for optimization ratio of sedimentation and calculating energy and exergy analyses.Table 6 Collectors with different percentages of nanofluids and porous media.

In this research, an enhanced solar collector with both porous media and Nanofluid is investigated. In the present study, 0.1–0.5% CuO and Al2O3 concentration were added to the collector fully filled by porous media to achieve maximum energy and exergy efficiencies of solar CCHP systems. All steps of the investigation are shown in Table 6.

Energy and exergy analyses of parabolic solar collectors and SCCHP systems are shown in Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 6 Energy and exergy efficiencies of the PTC with porous media and nanofluid.

Figure 7 Energy and exergy efficiency of the SCCHP.

Results show that the highest energy and exergy efficiencies are 74.19% and 32.6%, respectively, that is achieved in Step 12 (parabolic collectors with filled porous media and 0.5% Al2O3). In the second step, the maximum energy efficiency of SCCHP systems with fourteen steps of simulation are shown in Figure 7.

In the second step, where 0.1, −0.6% of the nanofluids were added, it is found that 0.5% leads to the highest energy and exergy efficiency enhancement in solar collectors and SCCHP systems. Using concentrations more than 0.5% leads to sediment in the solar collector’s pipe and a decrease of porosity in the pipe [73]. According to Figure 7, maximum energy and exergy efficiencies of SCCHP are achieved in Step 12. In this step energy efficiency is 54.49% and exergy efficiency is 18.29%. In steps 13 and 14, with increasing concentration of CUO and Al2O3 nanofluid solution in porous materials, decreasing of energy and exergy efficiency of PTC and SCCHP system at the same time happened. This decrease in efficiency is due to the formation of sediment in the porous material. Calculations and simulations have shown that porous materials more than 0.5% nanofluids inside the collector pipe cause sediment and disturb the porosity of porous materials and pressure drop and reduce the coefficient of performance of the cogeneration system. Most experience showed that CUO and AL2O3 nanofluids with less than 0.6% percent solution are used in the investigation on the solar collectors at low temperatures and discharges [74]. One of the important points of this research is that the best ratio of nanofluids in the solar collector with a low temperature is 0.5% (AL2O3 and CUO); with this replacement, the cost of solar collectors and SCCHP cycle is reduced.

5. Conclusion and Future Directions

In the present study, ways for increasing the efficiency of solar collectors in order to enhance the efficiency of the SCCHP cycle are examined. The research is aimed at adding both porous materials and nanofluids for estimating the best ratio of nanofluid for enhanced solar collector and protecting sedimentation in porous media. By adding porous materials (copper foam with porosity of 95%) and 0.5% nanofluids together, high efficiency in solar parabolic collectors can be achieved. The novelty in this research is the addition of both nanofluids and porous materials and calculating the best ratio for preventing sedimentation and pressure drop in solar collector’s pipe. In this study, it was observed that, by adding 0.5% of AL2O3 nanofluid in working fluids, the energy efficiency of PTC rises to 74.19% and exergy efficiency is grown up to 32.6%. In SCCHP cycle, energy efficiency is 54.49% and exergy efficiency is 18.29%.

In this research, parabolic solar collectors fully filled by porous media (copper foam with a porosity of 95) are investigated. In the next step, parabolic solar collectors in the SCCHP cycle were simultaneously filled by porous media and different percentages of Al2O3 and CuO nanofluid. At this step, values of 0.1% to 0.6% of each nanofluid were added to the working fluid, and the efficiency of the energy and exergy of the collectors and the SCCHP cycle were determined. In this case, nanofluid and the porous media were used together in the solar collector and maximum efficiency achieved. 0.5% of both nanofluids were used to achieve the biggest efficiency enhancement.

In the present study, as expected, the highest efficiency is for the parabolic solar collector fully filled by porous material (copper foam with a porosity of 95%) and 0.5% Al2O3. Results of the present study are as follows:(1)The average enhancement of collectors’ efficiency using porous media and nanofluids is 28%.(2)Solutions with 0.1 to 0.5% of nanofluids (CuO and Al2O3) are used to prevent collectors from sediment occurrence in porous media.(3)Collector of solar cogeneration cycles that is enhanced by both porous media and nanofluid has higher efficiency, and the stability of output temperature is more as well.(4)By using 0.6% of the nanofluids in the enhanced parabolic solar collectors with copper porous materials, sedimentation occurs and makes a high-pressure drop in the solar collector’s pipe which causes decrease in energy efficiency.(5)Average enhancement of SCCHP cycle efficiency is enhanced by both porous media and nanofluid 13%.

Nomenclature

:Solar radiation
a:Heat transfer augmentation coefficient
A:Solar collector area
Bf:Basic fluid
:Specific heat capacity of the nanofluid
F:Constant of air dilution
:Thermal conductivity of the nanofluid
:Thermal conductivity of the basic fluid
:Viscosity of the nanofluid
:Viscosity of the basic fluid
:Collector efficiency
:Collector energy receives
:Auxiliary boiler heat
:Expander energy
:Gas energy
:Screw expander work
:Cooling load, in kilowatts
:Heating load, in kilowatts
:Solar radiation energy on collector, in Joule
:Sanitary hot water load
Np:Nanoparticle
:Energy efficiency
:Heat exchanger efficiency
:Sun exergy
:Collector exergy
:Natural gas exergy
:Expander exergy
:Cooling exergy
:Heating exergy
:Exergy efficiency
:Steam mass flow rate
:Hot water mass flow rate
:Specific heat capacity of water
:Power output form by the screw expander
Tam:Average ambient temperature
:Density of the mixture.

Greek symbols

ρ:Density
ϕ:Nanoparticles volume fraction
β:Ratio of the nanolayer thickness.

Abbreviations

CCHP:Combined cooling, heating, and power
EES:Engineering equation solver.

Data Availability

For this study, data were generated by CARRIER software for the average electrical, heating, and cooling load of a residential building with 600 m2 in the city of Zahedan, Iran.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Contract no. 71761030 and Natural Science Foundation of Inner Mongolia under Contract no. 2019LH07003.

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Forming characteristics and control method of weld bead for GMAW on curved surface

곡면에 GMAW용 용접 비드의 형성 특성 및 제어 방법

Forming characteristics and control method of weld bead for GMAW on curved surface

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2021)Cite this article

Abstract

곡면에서 GMAW 기반 적층 가공의 용접 성형 특성은 중력의 영향을 크게 받습니다. 성형면의 경사각이 크면 혹 비드(hump bead)와 같은 심각한 결함이 발생합니다.

본 논문에서는 양생면에서 용접 비드 형성의 형성 특성과 제어 방법을 연구하기 위해 용접 용융 풀 유동 역학의 전산 모델을 수립하고 제안된 모델을 검증하기 위해 증착 실험을 수행하였습니다.

결과는 용접 비드 경사각(α)이 증가함에 따라 역류의 속도가 증가하고 상향 용접의 경우 α > 60°일 때 불규칙한 험프 결함이 나타나는 것으로 나타났습니다.

상부 과잉 액체의 하향 압착력과 하부 상향 유동의 반동력과 표면장력 사이의 상호작용은 용접 혹 형성의 주요 요인이었다. 하향 용접의 경우 양호한 형태를 얻을 수 있었으며, 용접 비드 경사각이 증가함에 따라 용접 높이는 감소하고 용접 폭은 증가하였습니다.

하향 및 상향 용접을 위한 곡면의 용융 거동 및 성형 특성을 기반으로 험프 결함을 제어하기 위해 위브 용접을 통한 증착 방법을 제안하였습니다.

성형 궤적의 변화로 인해 용접 방향의 중력 성분이 크게 감소하여 용융 풀 흐름의 안정성이 향상되었으며 복잡한 표면에서 안정적이고 일관된 용접 비드를 얻는 데 유리했습니다.

하향 용접과 상향 용접 사이의 단일 비드의 치수 편차는 7% 이내였으며 하향 및 상향 혼합 혼합 비드 중첩 증착에서 비드의 변동 편차는 0.45로 GMAW 기반 적층 제조 공정에서 허용될 수 있었습니다.

이러한 발견은 GMAW를 기반으로 하는 곡선 적층 적층 제조의 용접 비드 형성 제어에 기여했습니다.

The weld forming characteristics of GMAW-based additive manufacturing on curved surface are dramatically influenced by gravity. Large inclined angle of the forming surface would lead to severe defects such as hump bead. In this paper, a computational model of welding molten pool flow dynamics was established to research the forming characteristic and control method of weld bead forming on cured surface, and deposition experiments were conducted to verify the proposed model. Results indicated that the velocity of backward flows increased with the increase of weld bead tilt angle (α) and irregular hump defects appeared when α > 60° for upward welding. The interaction between the downward squeezing force of the excess liquid at the top and the recoil force of the upward flow at the bottom and the surface tension were primary factors for welding hump formation. For downward welding, a good morphology shape could be obtained, and the weld height decreased and the weld width increased with the increase of weld bead tilt angle. Based on the molten behaviors and forming characteristics on curved surface for downward and upward welding, the method of deposition with weave welding was proposed to control hump defects. Gravity component in the welding direction was significantly reduced due to the change of forming trajectory, which improved the stability of the molten pool flow and was beneficial to obtain stable and consistent weld bead on complex surface. The dimensional deviations of the single bead between downward and upward welding were within 7% and the fluctuation deviation of the bead in multi-bead overlapping deposition with mixing downward and upward welding was 0.45, which could be acceptable in GMAW-based additive manufacturing process. These findings contributed to the weld bead forming control of curve layered additive manufacturing based on GMAW.

Keywords

  • Molten pool behaviors
  • GMAW-based WAAM
  • Deposition with weave welding
  • Welding on curved surface
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Figure 2. (a) Scanning electron microscopy images of Ti6Al4V powder particles and (b) simulated powder bed using discrete element modelling

Laser Powder Bed에서 Laser Drilling에 의한 Keyhole 형성 Ti6Al4V 생체 의학 합금의 융합: 메조스코픽 전산유체역학 시뮬레이션 대 경험적 검증을 사용한 수학적 모델링

Keyhole Formation by Laser Drilling in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Ti6Al4V Biomedical Alloy: Mesoscopic Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation versus Mathematical Modelling Using Empirical Validation

Asif Ur Rehman 1,2,3,*
,† , Muhammad Arif Mahmood 4,*
,† , Fatih Pitir 1
, Metin Uymaz Salamci 2,3
,
Andrei C. Popescu 4 and Ion N. Mihailescu 4

Abstract

LPBF(Laser Powder Bed fusion) 공정에서 작동 조건은 열 분포를 기반으로 레이저 유도 키홀 영역을 결정하는 데 필수적입니다. 얕은 구멍과 깊은 구멍으로 분류되는 이러한 영역은 LPBF 프로세스에서 확률과 결함 형성 강도를 제어합니다.

LPBF 프로세스의 핵심 구멍을 연구하고 제어하기 위해 수학적 및 CFD(전산 유체 역학) 모델이 제공됩니다. CFD의 경우 이산 요소 모델링 기법을 사용한 유체 체적 방법이 사용되었으며, 분말 베드 보이드 및 표면에 의한 레이저 빔 흡수를 포함하여 수학적 모델이 개발되었습니다.

동적 용융 풀 거동을 자세히 살펴봅니다. 실험적, CFD 시뮬레이션 및 분석적 컴퓨팅 결과 간에 정량적 비교가 수행되어 좋은 일치를 얻습니다.

LPBF에서 레이저 조사 영역 주변의 온도는 높은 내열성과 분말 입자 사이의 공기로 인해 분말층 주변에 비해 급격히 상승하여 레이저 횡방향 열파의 이동이 느려집니다. LPBF에서 키홀은 에너지 밀도에 의해 제어되는 얕고 깊은 키홀 모드로 분류될 수 있습니다. 에너지 밀도를 높이면 얕은 키홀 구멍 모드가 깊은 키홀 구멍 모드로 바뀝니다.

깊은 키홀 구멍의 에너지 밀도는 다중 반사와 키홀 구멍 내의 2차 반사 빔의 집중으로 인해 더 높아져 재료가 빠르게 기화됩니다.

깊은 키홀 구멍 모드에서는 온도 분포가 높기 때문에 액체 재료가 기화 온도에 가까우므로 얕은 키홀 구멍보다 구멍이 형성될 확률이 훨씬 높습니다. 온도가 급격히 상승하면 재료 밀도가 급격히 떨어지므로 비열과 융해 잠열로 인해 유체 부피가 증가합니다.

그 대가로 표면 장력을 낮추고 용융 풀 균일성에 영향을 미칩니다.

In the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process, the operating conditions are essential in determining laser-induced keyhole regimes based on the thermal distribution. These regimes, classified into shallow and deep keyholes, control the probability and defects formation intensity in the LPBF process. To study and control the keyhole in the LPBF process, mathematical and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models are presented. For CFD, the volume of fluid method with the discrete element modeling technique was used, while a mathematical model was developed by including the laser beam absorption by the powder bed voids and surface. The dynamic melt pool behavior is explored in detail. Quantitative comparisons are made among experimental, CFD simulation and analytical computing results leading to a good correspondence. In LPBF, the temperature around the laser irradiation zone rises rapidly compared to the surroundings in the powder layer due to the high thermal resistance and the air between the powder particles, resulting in a slow travel of laser transverse heat waves. In LPBF, the keyhole can be classified into shallow and deep keyhole mode, controlled by the energy density. Increasing the energy density, the shallow keyhole mode transforms into the deep keyhole mode. The energy density in a deep keyhole is higher due to the multiple reflections and concentrations of secondary reflected beams within the keyhole, causing the material to vaporize quickly. Due to an elevated temperature distribution in deep keyhole mode, the probability of pores forming is much higher than in a shallow keyhole as the liquid material is close to the vaporization temperature. When the temperature increases rapidly, the material density drops quickly, thus, raising the fluid volume due to the specific heat and fusion latent heat. In return, this lowers the surface tension and affects the melt pool uniformity.

Keywords: laser powder bed fusion; computational fluid dynamics; analytical modelling; shallow
and deep keyhole modes; experimental correlation

Figure 1. Powder bed schematic with voids.
Figure 1. Powder bed schematic with voids.
Figure 2. (a) Scanning electron microscopy images of Ti6Al4V powder particles and (b) simulated powder bed using discrete element modelling
Figure 2. (a) Scanning electron microscopy images of Ti6Al4V powder particles and (b) simulated powder bed using discrete element modelling
Figure 3. Temperature field contour formation at various time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms.
Figure 3. Temperature field contour formation at various time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms.
Figure 4. Detailed view of shallow depth melt mode with temperature field at 0.695 ms
Figure 4. Detailed view of shallow depth melt mode with temperature field at 0.695 ms
Figure 5. Melt flow stream traces formation at various time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms
Figure 5. Melt flow stream traces formation at various time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms
Figure 6. Density evolution of the melt pool at various time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms.
Figure 6. Density evolution of the melt pool at various time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms.
Figure 7. Un-melted and melted regions at different time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms
Figure 7. Un-melted and melted regions at different time intervals (a) 0.695 ms, (b) 0.795 ms, (c) 0.995 ms and (d) 1.3 ms
Figure 8. Transformation from shallow depth melt flow to deep keyhole formation when laser power increased from (a) 170 W to (b) 200 W
Figure 8. Transformation from shallow depth melt flow to deep keyhole formation when laser power increased from (a) 170 W to (b) 200 W
Figure 9. Stream traces and laser beam multiple reflections in deep keyhole melt flow mode
Figure 9. Stream traces and laser beam multiple reflections in deep keyhole melt flow mode
Figure 10. A comparison between analytical and CFD simulation results for peak thermal distribution value in the deep keyhole formation
Figure 10. A comparison between analytical and CFD simulation results for peak thermal distribution value in the deep keyhole formation
Figure 11. A comparison among experiments [49], CFD and analytical simulations for deep keyhole top width and bottom width
Figure 11. A comparison among experiments [49], CFD and analytical simulations for deep keyhole top width and bottom width

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Flow velocity profiles for canals with a depth of 3 m and flow velocities of 5–5.3 m/s.

Optimization Algorithms and Engineering: Recent Advances and Applications

Mahdi Feizbahr,1 Navid Tonekaboni,2Guang-Jun Jiang,3,4 and Hong-Xia Chen3,4Show moreAcademic Editor: Mohammad YazdiReceived08 Apr 2021Revised18 Jun 2021Accepted17 Jul 2021Published11 Aug 2021

Abstract

Vegetation along the river increases the roughness and reduces the average flow velocity, reduces flow energy, and changes the flow velocity profile in the cross section of the river. Many canals and rivers in nature are covered with vegetation during the floods. Canal’s roughness is strongly affected by plants and therefore it has a great effect on flow resistance during flood. Roughness resistance against the flow due to the plants depends on the flow conditions and plant, so the model should simulate the current velocity by considering the effects of velocity, depth of flow, and type of vegetation along the canal. Total of 48 models have been simulated to investigate the effect of roughness in the canal. The results indicated that, by enhancing the velocity, the effect of vegetation in decreasing the bed velocity is negligible, while when the current has lower speed, the effect of vegetation on decreasing the bed velocity is obviously considerable.


강의 식생은 거칠기를 증가시키고 평균 유속을 감소시키며, 유속 에너지를 감소시키고 강의 단면에서 유속 프로파일을 변경합니다. 자연의 많은 운하와 강은 홍수 동안 초목으로 덮여 있습니다. 운하의 조도는 식물의 영향을 많이 받으므로 홍수시 유동저항에 큰 영향을 미칩니다. 식물로 인한 흐름에 대한 거칠기 저항은 흐름 조건 및 식물에 따라 다르므로 모델은 유속, 흐름 깊이 및 운하를 따라 식생 유형의 영향을 고려하여 현재 속도를 시뮬레이션해야 합니다. 근관의 거칠기의 영향을 조사하기 위해 총 48개의 모델이 시뮬레이션되었습니다. 결과는 유속을 높임으로써 유속을 감소시키는 식생의 영향은 무시할 수 있는 반면, 해류가 더 낮은 유속일 때 유속을 감소시키는 식생의 영향은 분명히 상당함을 나타냈다.

1. Introduction

Considering the impact of each variable is a very popular field within the analytical and statistical methods and intelligent systems [114]. This can help research for better modeling considering the relation of variables or interaction of them toward reaching a better condition for the objective function in control and engineering [1527]. Consequently, it is necessary to study the effects of the passive factors on the active domain [2836]. Because of the effect of vegetation on reducing the discharge capacity of rivers [37], pruning plants was necessary to improve the condition of rivers. One of the important effects of vegetation in river protection is the action of roots, which cause soil consolidation and soil structure improvement and, by enhancing the shear strength of soil, increase the resistance of canal walls against the erosive force of water. The outer limbs of the plant increase the roughness of the canal walls and reduce the flow velocity and deplete the flow energy in vicinity of the walls. Vegetation by reducing the shear stress of the canal bed reduces flood discharge and sedimentation in the intervals between vegetation and increases the stability of the walls [3841].

One of the main factors influencing the speed, depth, and extent of flood in this method is Manning’s roughness coefficient. On the other hand, soil cover [42], especially vegetation, is one of the most determining factors in Manning’s roughness coefficient. Therefore, it is expected that those seasonal changes in the vegetation of the region will play an important role in the calculated value of Manning’s roughness coefficient and ultimately in predicting the flood wave behavior [4345]. The roughness caused by plants’ resistance to flood current depends on the flow and plant conditions. Flow conditions include depth and velocity of the plant, and plant conditions include plant type, hardness or flexibility, dimensions, density, and shape of the plant [46]. In general, the issue discussed in this research is the optimization of flood-induced flow in canals by considering the effect of vegetation-induced roughness. Therefore, the effect of plants on the roughness coefficient and canal transmission coefficient and in consequence the flow depth should be evaluated [4748].

Current resistance is generally known by its roughness coefficient. The equation that is mainly used in this field is Manning equation. The ratio of shear velocity to average current velocity  is another form of current resistance. The reason for using the  ratio is that it is dimensionless and has a strong theoretical basis. The reason for using Manning roughness coefficient is its pervasiveness. According to Freeman et al. [49], the Manning roughness coefficient for plants was calculated according to the Kouwen and Unny [50] method for incremental resistance. This method involves increasing the roughness for various surface and plant irregularities. Manning’s roughness coefficient has all the factors affecting the resistance of the canal. Therefore, the appropriate way to more accurately estimate this coefficient is to know the factors affecting this coefficient [51].

To calculate the flow rate, velocity, and depth of flow in canals as well as flood and sediment estimation, it is important to evaluate the flow resistance. To determine the flow resistance in open ducts, Manning, Chézy, and Darcy–Weisbach relations are used [52]. In these relations, there are parameters such as Manning’s roughness coefficient (n), Chézy roughness coefficient (C), and Darcy–Weisbach coefficient (f). All three of these coefficients are a kind of flow resistance coefficient that is widely used in the equations governing flow in rivers [53].

The three relations that express the relationship between the average flow velocity (V) and the resistance and geometric and hydraulic coefficients of the canal are as follows:where nf, and c are Manning, Darcy–Weisbach, and Chézy coefficients, respectively. V = average flow velocity, R = hydraulic radius, Sf = slope of energy line, which in uniform flow is equal to the slope of the canal bed,  = gravitational acceleration, and Kn is a coefficient whose value is equal to 1 in the SI system and 1.486 in the English system. The coefficients of resistance in equations (1) to (3) are related as follows:

Based on the boundary layer theory, the flow resistance for rough substrates is determined from the following general relation:where f = Darcy–Weisbach coefficient of friction, y = flow depth, Ks = bed roughness size, and A = constant coefficient.

On the other hand, the relationship between the Darcy–Weisbach coefficient of friction and the shear velocity of the flow is as follows:

By using equation (6), equation (5) is converted as follows:

Investigation on the effect of vegetation arrangement on shear velocity of flow in laboratory conditions showed that, with increasing the shear Reynolds number (), the numerical value of the  ratio also increases; in other words the amount of roughness coefficient increases with a slight difference in the cases without vegetation, checkered arrangement, and cross arrangement, respectively [54].

Roughness in river vegetation is simulated in mathematical models with a variable floor slope flume by different densities and discharges. The vegetation considered submerged in the bed of the flume. Results showed that, with increasing vegetation density, canal roughness and flow shear speed increase and with increasing flow rate and depth, Manning’s roughness coefficient decreases. Factors affecting the roughness caused by vegetation include the effect of plant density and arrangement on flow resistance, the effect of flow velocity on flow resistance, and the effect of depth [4555].

One of the works that has been done on the effect of vegetation on the roughness coefficient is Darby [56] study, which investigates a flood wave model that considers all the effects of vegetation on the roughness coefficient. There are currently two methods for estimating vegetation roughness. One method is to add the thrust force effect to Manning’s equation [475758] and the other method is to increase the canal bed roughness (Manning-Strickler coefficient) [455961]. These two methods provide acceptable results in models designed to simulate floodplain flow. Wang et al. [62] simulate the floodplain with submerged vegetation using these two methods and to increase the accuracy of the results, they suggested using the effective height of the plant under running water instead of using the actual height of the plant. Freeman et al. [49] provided equations for determining the coefficient of vegetation roughness under different conditions. Lee et al. [63] proposed a method for calculating the Manning coefficient using the flow velocity ratio at different depths. Much research has been done on the Manning roughness coefficient in rivers, and researchers [496366] sought to obtain a specific number for n to use in river engineering. However, since the depth and geometric conditions of rivers are completely variable in different places, the values of Manning roughness coefficient have changed subsequently, and it has not been possible to choose a fixed number. In river engineering software, the Manning roughness coefficient is determined only for specific and constant conditions or normal flow. Lee et al. [63] stated that seasonal conditions, density, and type of vegetation should also be considered. Hydraulic roughness and Manning roughness coefficient n of the plant were obtained by estimating the total Manning roughness coefficient from the matching of the measured water surface curve and water surface height. The following equation is used for the flow surface curve:where  is the depth of water change, S0 is the slope of the canal floor, Sf is the slope of the energy line, and Fr is the Froude number which is obtained from the following equation:where D is the characteristic length of the canal. Flood flow velocity is one of the important parameters of flood waves, which is very important in calculating the water level profile and energy consumption. In the cases where there are many limitations for researchers due to the wide range of experimental dimensions and the variety of design parameters, the use of numerical methods that are able to estimate the rest of the unknown results with acceptable accuracy is economically justified.

FLOW-3D software uses Finite Difference Method (FDM) for numerical solution of two-dimensional and three-dimensional flow. This software is dedicated to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and is provided by Flow Science [67]. The flow is divided into networks with tubular cells. For each cell there are values of dependent variables and all variables are calculated in the center of the cell, except for the velocity, which is calculated at the center of the cell. In this software, two numerical techniques have been used for geometric simulation, FAVOR™ (Fractional-Area-Volume-Obstacle-Representation) and the VOF (Volume-of-Fluid) method. The equations used at this model for this research include the principle of mass survival and the magnitude of motion as follows. The fluid motion equations in three dimensions, including the Navier–Stokes equations with some additional terms, are as follows:where  are mass accelerations in the directions xyz and  are viscosity accelerations in the directions xyz and are obtained from the following equations:

Shear stresses  in equation (11) are obtained from the following equations:

The standard model is used for high Reynolds currents, but in this model, RNG theory allows the analytical differential formula to be used for the effective viscosity that occurs at low Reynolds numbers. Therefore, the RNG model can be used for low and high Reynolds currents.

Weather changes are high and this affects many factors continuously. The presence of vegetation in any area reduces the velocity of surface flows and prevents soil erosion, so vegetation will have a significant impact on reducing destructive floods. One of the methods of erosion protection in floodplain watersheds is the use of biological methods. The presence of vegetation in watersheds reduces the flow rate during floods and prevents soil erosion. The external organs of plants increase the roughness and decrease the velocity of water flow and thus reduce its shear stress energy. One of the important factors with which the hydraulic resistance of plants is expressed is the roughness coefficient. Measuring the roughness coefficient of plants and investigating their effect on reducing velocity and shear stress of flow is of special importance.

Roughness coefficients in canals are affected by two main factors, namely, flow conditions and vegetation characteristics [68]. So far, much research has been done on the effect of the roughness factor created by vegetation, but the issue of plant density has received less attention. For this purpose, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of vegetation density on flow velocity changes.

In a study conducted using a software model on three density modes in the submerged state effect on flow velocity changes in 48 different modes was investigated (Table 1).Table 1 The studied models.

The number of cells used in this simulation is equal to 1955888 cells. The boundary conditions were introduced to the model as a constant speed and depth (Figure 1). At the output boundary, due to the presence of supercritical current, no parameter for the current is considered. Absolute roughness for floors and walls was introduced to the model (Figure 1). In this case, the flow was assumed to be nonviscous and air entry into the flow was not considered. After  seconds, this model reached a convergence accuracy of .

Figure 1 The simulated model and its boundary conditions.

Due to the fact that it is not possible to model the vegetation in FLOW-3D software, in this research, the vegetation of small soft plants was studied so that Manning’s coefficients can be entered into the canal bed in the form of roughness coefficients obtained from the studies of Chow [69] in similar conditions. In practice, in such modeling, the effect of plant height is eliminated due to the small height of herbaceous plants, and modeling can provide relatively acceptable results in these conditions.

48 models with input velocities proportional to the height of the regular semihexagonal canal were considered to create supercritical conditions. Manning coefficients were applied based on Chow [69] studies in order to control the canal bed. Speed profiles were drawn and discussed.

Any control and simulation system has some inputs that we should determine to test any technology [7077]. Determination and true implementation of such parameters is one of the key steps of any simulation [237881] and computing procedure [8286]. The input current is created by applying the flow rate through the VFR (Volume Flow Rate) option and the output flow is considered Output and for other borders the Symmetry option is considered.

Simulation of the models and checking their action and responses and observing how a process behaves is one of the accepted methods in engineering and science [8788]. For verification of FLOW-3D software, the results of computer simulations are compared with laboratory measurements and according to the values of computational error, convergence error, and the time required for convergence, the most appropriate option for real-time simulation is selected (Figures 2 and 3 ).

Figure 2 Modeling the plant with cylindrical tubes at the bottom of the canal.

Figure 3 Velocity profiles in positions 2 and 5.

The canal is 7 meters long, 0.5 meters wide, and 0.8 meters deep. This test was used to validate the application of the software to predict the flow rate parameters. In this experiment, instead of using the plant, cylindrical pipes were used in the bottom of the canal.

The conditions of this modeling are similar to the laboratory conditions and the boundary conditions used in the laboratory were used for numerical modeling. The critical flow enters the simulation model from the upstream boundary, so in the upstream boundary conditions, critical velocity and depth are considered. The flow at the downstream boundary is supercritical, so no parameters are applied to the downstream boundary.

The software well predicts the process of changing the speed profile in the open canal along with the considered obstacles. The error in the calculated speed values can be due to the complexity of the flow and the interaction of the turbulence caused by the roughness of the floor with the turbulence caused by the three-dimensional cycles in the hydraulic jump. As a result, the software is able to predict the speed distribution in open canals.

2. Modeling Results

After analyzing the models, the results were shown in graphs (Figures 414 ). The total number of experiments in this study was 48 due to the limitations of modeling.(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(d)
(d)(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(d)
(d)Figure 4 Flow velocity profiles for canals with a depth of 1 m and flow velocities of 3–3.3 m/s. Canal with a depth of 1 meter and a flow velocity of (a) 3 meters per second, (b) 3.1 meters per second, (c) 3.2 meters per second, and (d) 3.3 meters per second.

Figure 5 Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3 meters per second.

Figure 6 Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3.1 meters per second.

Figure 7 Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3.2 meters per second.

Figure 8 Canal diagram with a depth of 1 meter and a flow rate of 3.3 meters per second.(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(d)
(d)(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(d)
(d)Figure 9 Flow velocity profiles for canals with a depth of 2 m and flow velocities of 4–4.3 m/s. Canal with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of (a) 4 meters per second, (b) 4.1 meters per second, (c) 4.2 meters per second, and (d) 4.3 meters per second.

Figure 10 Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4 meters per second.

Figure 11 Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4.1 meters per second.

Figure 12 Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4.2 meters per second.

Figure 13 Canal diagram with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of 4.3 meters per second.(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(d)
(d)(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(d)
(d)Figure 14 Flow velocity profiles for canals with a depth of 3 m and flow velocities of 5–5.3 m/s. Canal with a depth of 2 meters and a flow rate of (a) 4 meters per second, (b) 4.1 meters per second, (c) 4.2 meters per second, and (d) 4.3 meters per second.

To investigate the effects of roughness with flow velocity, the trend of flow velocity changes at different depths and with supercritical flow to a Froude number proportional to the depth of the section has been obtained.

According to the velocity profiles of Figure 5, it can be seen that, with the increasing of Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases.

According to Figures 5 to 8, it can be found that, with increasing the Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the models 1 to 12, which can be justified by increasing the speed and of course increasing the Froude number.

According to Figure 10, we see that, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases.

According to Figure 11, we see that, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of Figures 510, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

With increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases (Figure 12). But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher models (Figures 58 and 1011), which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

According to Figure 13, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of Figures 5 to 12, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

According to Figure 15, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases.

Figure 15 Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5 meters per second.

According to Figure 16, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher model, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

Figure 16 Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5.1 meters per second.

According to Figure 17, it is clear that, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher models, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

Figure 17 Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5.2 meters per second.

According to Figure 18, with increasing Manning’s coefficient, the canal bed speed decreases. But this deceleration is more noticeable than the deceleration of the higher models, which can be justified by increasing the speed and, of course, increasing the Froude number.

Figure 18 Canal diagram with a depth of 3 meters and a flow rate of 5.3 meters per second.

According to Figure 19, it can be seen that the vegetation placed in front of the flow input velocity has negligible effect on the reduction of velocity, which of course can be justified due to the flexibility of the vegetation. The only unusual thing is the unexpected decrease in floor speed of 3 m/s compared to higher speeds.(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)Figure 19 Comparison of velocity profiles with the same plant densities (depth 1 m). Comparison of velocity profiles with (a) plant densities of 25%, depth 1 m; (b) plant densities of 50%, depth 1 m; and (c) plant densities of 75%, depth 1 m.

According to Figure 20, by increasing the speed of vegetation, the effect of vegetation on reducing the flow rate becomes more noticeable. And the role of input current does not have much effect in reducing speed.(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)Figure 20 Comparison of velocity profiles with the same plant densities (depth 2 m). Comparison of velocity profiles with (a) plant densities of 25%, depth 2 m; (b) plant densities of 50%, depth 2 m; and (c) plant densities of 75%, depth 2 m.

According to Figure 21, it can be seen that, with increasing speed, the effect of vegetation on reducing the bed flow rate becomes more noticeable and the role of the input current does not have much effect. In general, it can be seen that, by increasing the speed of the input current, the slope of the profiles increases from the bed to the water surface and due to the fact that, in software, the roughness coefficient applies to the channel floor only in the boundary conditions, this can be perfectly justified. Of course, it can be noted that, due to the flexible conditions of the vegetation of the bed, this modeling can show acceptable results for such grasses in the canal floor. In the next directions, we may try application of swarm-based optimization methods for modeling and finding the most effective factors in this research [27815188994]. In future, we can also apply the simulation logic and software of this research for other domains such as power engineering [9599].(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)(a)
(a)(b)
(b)(c)
(c)Figure 21 Comparison of velocity profiles with the same plant densities (depth 3 m). Comparison of velocity profiles with (a) plant densities of 25%, depth 3 m; (b) plant densities of 50%, depth 3 m; and (c) plant densities of 75%, depth 3 m.

3. Conclusion

The effects of vegetation on the flood canal were investigated by numerical modeling with FLOW-3D software. After analyzing the results, the following conclusions were reached:(i)Increasing the density of vegetation reduces the velocity of the canal floor but has no effect on the velocity of the canal surface.(ii)Increasing the Froude number is directly related to increasing the speed of the canal floor.(iii)In the canal with a depth of one meter, a sudden increase in speed can be observed from the lowest speed and higher speed, which is justified by the sudden increase in Froude number.(iv)As the inlet flow rate increases, the slope of the profiles from the bed to the water surface increases.(v)By reducing the Froude number, the effect of vegetation on reducing the flow bed rate becomes more noticeable. And the input velocity in reducing the velocity of the canal floor does not have much effect.(vi)At a flow rate between 3 and 3.3 meters per second due to the shallow depth of the canal and the higher landing number a more critical area is observed in which the flow bed velocity in this area is between 2.86 and 3.1 m/s.(vii)Due to the critical flow velocity and the slight effect of the roughness of the horseshoe vortex floor, it is not visible and is only partially observed in models 1-2-3 and 21.(viii)As the flow rate increases, the effect of vegetation on the rate of bed reduction decreases.(ix)In conditions where less current intensity is passing, vegetation has a greater effect on reducing current intensity and energy consumption increases.(x)In the case of using the flow rate of 0.8 cubic meters per second, the velocity distribution and flow regime show about 20% more energy consumption than in the case of using the flow rate of 1.3 cubic meters per second.

Nomenclature

n:Manning’s roughness coefficient
C:Chézy roughness coefficient
f:Darcy–Weisbach coefficient
V:Flow velocity
R:Hydraulic radius
g:Gravitational acceleration
y:Flow depth
Ks:Bed roughness
A:Constant coefficient
:Reynolds number
y/∂x:Depth of water change
S0:Slope of the canal floor
Sf:Slope of energy line
Fr:Froude number
D:Characteristic length of the canal
G:Mass acceleration
:Shear stresses.

Data Availability

All data are included within the paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Contract no. 71761030 and Natural Science Foundation of Inner Mongolia under Contract no. 2019LH07003.

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Fig. 1. (a) Dimensions of the casting with runners (unit: mm), (b) a melt flow simulation using Flow-3D software together with Reilly's model[44], predicted that a large amount of bifilms (denoted by the black particles) would be contained in the final casting. (c) A solidification simulation using Pro-cast software showed that no shrinkage defect was contained in the final casting.

AZ91 합금 주물 내 연행 결함에 대한 캐리어 가스의 영향

Effect of carrier gases on the entrainment defects within AZ91 alloy castings

Tian Liab J.M.T.Daviesa Xiangzhen Zhuc
aUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
bGrainger and Worrall Ltd, Bridgnorth WV15 5HP, United Kingdom
cBrunel Centre for Advanced Solidification Technology, Brunel University London, Kingston Ln, London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom

Abstract

An entrainment defect (also known as a double oxide film defect or bifilm) acts a void containing an entrapped gas when submerged into a light-alloy melt, thus reducing the quality and reproducibility of the final castings. Previous publications, carried out with Al-alloy castings, reported that this trapped gas could be subsequently consumed by the reaction with the surrounding melt, thus reducing the void volume and negative effect of entrainment defects. Compared with Al-alloys, the entrapped gas within Mg-alloy might be more efficiently consumed due to the relatively high reactivity of magnesium. However, research into the entrainment defects within Mg alloys has been significantly limited. In the present work, AZ91 alloy castings were produced under different carrier gas atmospheres (i.e., SF6/CO2, SF6/air). The evolution processes of the entrainment defects contained in AZ91 alloy were suggested according to the microstructure inspections and thermodynamic calculations. The defects formed in the different atmospheres have a similar sandwich-like structure, but their oxide films contained different combinations of compounds. The use of carrier gases, which were associated with different entrained-gas consumption rates, affected the reproducibility of AZ91 castings.

Keywords

Magnesium alloyCastingOxide film, Bifilm, Entrainment defect, Reproducibility

연행 결함(이중 산화막 결함 또는 이중막 결함이라고도 함)은 경합금 용융물에 잠길 때 갇힌 가스를 포함하는 공극으로 작용하여 최종 주물의 품질과 재현성을 저하시킵니다. Al-합금 주조로 수행된 이전 간행물에서는 이 갇힌 가스가 주변 용융물과의 반응에 의해 후속적으로 소모되어 공극 부피와 연행 결함의 부정적인 영향을 줄일 수 있다고 보고했습니다. Al-합금에 비해 마그네슘의 상대적으로 높은 반응성으로 인해 Mg-합금 내에 포집된 가스가 더 효율적으로 소모될 수 있습니다. 그러나 Mg 합금 내 연행 결함에 대한 연구는 상당히 제한적이었습니다. 현재 작업에서 AZ91 합금 주물은 다양한 캐리어 가스 분위기(즉, SF 6 /CO2 , SF 6 / 공기). AZ91 합금에 포함된 엔트레인먼트 결함의 진화 과정은 미세조직 검사 및 열역학적 계산에 따라 제안되었습니다. 서로 다른 분위기에서 형성된 결함은 유사한 샌드위치 구조를 갖지만 산화막에는 서로 다른 화합물 조합이 포함되어 있습니다. 다른 동반 가스 소비율과 관련된 운반 가스의 사용은 AZ91 주물의 재현성에 영향을 미쳤습니다.

키워드

마그네슘 합금주조Oxide film, Bifilm, Entrainment 불량, 재현성

1 . 소개

지구상에서 가장 가벼운 구조용 금속인 마그네슘은 지난 수십 년 동안 가장 매력적인 경금속 중 하나가 되었습니다. 결과적으로 마그네슘 산업은 지난 20년 동안 급속한 발전을 경험했으며 [1 , 2] , 이는 전 세계적으로 Mg 합금에 대한 수요가 크게 증가했음을 나타냅니다. 오늘날 Mg 합금의 사용은 자동차, 항공 우주, 전자 등의 분야에서 볼 수 있습니다. [3 , 4] . Mg 금속의 전 세계 소비는 특히 자동차 산업에서 앞으로 더욱 증가할 것으로 예측되었습니다. 기존 자동차와 전기 자동차 모두의 에너지 효율성 요구 사항이 설계를 경량화하도록 더욱 밀어붙이기 때문입니다 [3 , 56] .

Mg 합금에 대한 수요의 지속적인 성장은 Mg 합금 주조의 품질 및 기계적 특성 개선에 대한 광범위한 관심을 불러일으켰습니다. Mg 합금 주조 공정 동안 용융물의 표면 난류는 소량의 주변 대기를 포함하는 이중 표면 필름의 포획으로 이어질 수 있으므로 동반 결함(이중 산화막 결함 또는 이중막 결함이라고도 함)을 형성합니다. ) [7] , [8] , [9] , [10] . 무작위 크기, 수량, 방향 및 연행 결함의 배치는 주조 특성의 변화와 관련된 중요한 요인으로 널리 받아들여지고 있습니다 [7] . 또한 Peng et al. [11]AZ91 합금 용융물에 동반된 산화물 필름이 Al 8 Mn 5 입자에 대한 필터 역할을 하여 침전될 때 가두는 것을 발견했습니다 . Mackie et al. [12]는 또한 동반된 산화막이 금속간 입자를 트롤(trawl)하는 작용을 하여 입자가 클러스터링되어 매우 큰 결함을 형성할 수 있다고 제안했습니다. 금속간 화합물의 클러스터링은 비말동반 결함을 주조 특성에 더 해롭게 만들었습니다.

연행 결함에 관한 이전 연구의 대부분은 Al-합금에 대해 수행되었으며 [7 , [13] , [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] , [18] 몇 가지 잠재적인 방법이 제안되었습니다. 알루미늄 합금 주물의 품질에 대한 부정적인 영향을 줄이기 위해. Nyahumwa et al., [16] 은 연행 결함 내의 공극 체적이 열간 등방압 압축(HIP) 공정에 의해 감소될 수 있음을 보여줍니다. Campbell [7] 은 결함 내부의 동반된 가스가 주변 용융물과의 반응으로 인해 소모될 수 있다고 제안했으며, 이는 Raiszedeh와 Griffiths [19]에 의해 추가로 확인되었습니다 ..혼입 가스 소비가 Al-합금 주물의 기계적 특성에 미치는 영향은 [8 , 9]에 의해 조사되었으며 , 이는 혼입 가스의 소비가 주조 재현성의 개선을 촉진함을 시사합니다.

Al-합금 내 결함에 대한 조사와 비교하여 Mg-합금 내 연행 결함에 대한 연구는 상당히 제한적입니다. 연행 결함의 존재는 Mg 합금 주물 [20 , 21] 에서 입증 되었지만 그 거동, 진화 및 연행 가스 소비는 여전히 명확하지 않습니다.

Mg 합금 주조 공정에서 용융물은 일반적으로 마그네슘 점화를 피하기 위해 커버 가스로 보호됩니다. 따라서 모래 또는 매몰 몰드의 공동은 용융물을 붓기 전에 커버 가스로 세척해야 합니다 [22] . 따라서, Mg 합금 주물 내의 연행 가스는 공기만이 아니라 주조 공정에 사용되는 커버 가스를 포함해야 하며, 이는 구조 및 해당 연행 결함의 전개를 복잡하게 만들 수 있습니다.

SF 6 은 Mg 합금 주조 공정에 널리 사용되는 대표적인 커버 가스입니다 [23] , [24] , [25] . 이 커버 가스는 유럽의 마그네슘 합금 주조 공장에서 사용하도록 제한되었지만 상업 보고서에 따르면 이 커버는 전 세계 마그네슘 합금 산업, 특히 다음과 같은 글로벌 마그네슘 합금 생산을 지배한 국가에서 여전히 인기가 있습니다. 중국, 브라질, 인도 등 [26] . 또한, 최근 학술지 조사에서도 이 커버가스가 최근 마그네슘 합금 연구에서 널리 사용된 것으로 나타났다 [27] . SF 6 커버 가스 의 보호 메커니즘 (즉, 액체 Mg 합금과 SF 6 사이의 반응Cover gas)에 대한 연구는 여러 선행연구자들에 의해 이루어졌으나 표면 산화막의 형성과정이 아직 명확하게 밝혀지지 않았으며, 일부 발표된 결과들도 상충되고 있다. 1970년대 초 Fruehling [28] 은 SF 6 아래에 형성된 표면 피막이 주로 미량의 불화물과 함께 MgO 임을 발견 하고 SF 6 이 Mg 합금 표면 피막에 흡수 된다고 제안했습니다 . Couling [29] 은 흡수된 SF 6 이 Mg 합금 용융물과 반응하여 MgF 2 를 형성함을 추가로 확인했습니다 . 지난 20년 동안 아래에 자세히 설명된 것처럼 Mg 합금 표면 필름의 다양한 구조가 보고되었습니다.(1)

단층 필름 . Cashion [30 , 31] 은 X선 광전자 분광법(XPS)과 오제 분광법(AES)을 사용하여 표면 필름을 MgO 및 MgF 2 로 식별했습니다 . 그는 또한 필름의 구성이 두께와 전체 실험 유지 시간에 걸쳐 일정하다는 것을 발견했습니다. Cashion이 관찰한 필름은 10분에서 100분의 유지 시간으로 생성된 단층 구조를 가졌다.(2)

이중층 필름 . Aarstad et. al [32] 은 2003년에 이중층 표면 산화막을 보고했습니다. 그들은 예비 MgO 막에 부착된 잘 분포된 여러 MgF 2 입자를 관찰 하고 전체 표면적의 25-50%를 덮을 때까지 성장했습니다. 외부 MgO 필름을 통한 F의 내부 확산은 진화 과정의 원동력이었습니다. 이 이중층 구조는 Xiong의 그룹 [25 , 33] 과 Shih et al. 도 지지했습니다 . [34] .(삼)

트리플 레이어 필름 . 3층 필름과 그 진화 과정은 Pettersen [35]에 의해 2002년에 보고되었습니다 . Pettersen은 초기 표면 필름이 MgO 상이었고 F의 내부 확산에 의해 점차적으로 안정적인 MgF 2 상 으로 진화한다는 것을 발견했습니다 . 두꺼운 상부 및 하부 MgF 2 층.(4)

산화물 필름은 개별 입자로 구성 됩니다. Wang et al [36] 은 Mg-alloy 표면 필름을 SF 6 커버 가스 하에서 용융물에 교반 한 다음 응고 후 동반된 표면 필름을 검사했습니다. 그들은 동반된 표면 필름이 다른 연구자들이 보고한 보호 표면 필름처럼 계속되지 않고 개별 입자로 구성된다는 것을 발견했습니다. 젊은 산화막은 MgO 나노 크기의 산화물 입자로 구성되어 있는 반면, 오래된 산화막은 한쪽 면에 불화물과 질화물이 포함된 거친 입자(평균 크기 약 1μm)로 구성되어 있습니다.

Mg 합금 용융 표면의 산화막 또는 동반 가스는 모두 액체 Mg 합금과 커버 가스 사이의 반응으로 인해 형성되므로 Mg 합금 표면막에 대한 위에서 언급한 연구는 진화에 대한 귀중한 통찰력을 제공합니다. 연행 결함. 따라서 SF 6 커버 가스 의 보호 메커니즘 (즉, Mg-합금 표면 필름의 형성)은 해당 동반 결함의 잠재적인 복잡한 진화 과정을 나타냅니다.

그러나 Mg 합금 용융물에 표면 필름을 형성하는 것은 용융물에 잠긴 동반된 가스의 소비와 다른 상황에 있다는 점에 유의해야 합니다. 예를 들어, 앞서 언급한 연구에서 표면 성막 동안 충분한 양의 커버 가스가 담지되어 커버 가스의 고갈을 억제했습니다. 대조적으로, Mg 합금 용융물 내의 동반된 가스의 양은 유한하며, 동반된 가스는 완전히 고갈될 수 있습니다. Mirak [37] 은 3.5% SF 6 /기포를 특별히 설계된 영구 금형에서 응고되는 순수한 Mg 합금 용융물에 도입했습니다. 기포가 완전히 소모되었으며, 해당 산화막은 MgO와 MgF 2 의 혼합물임을 알 수 있었다.. 그러나 Aarstad [32] 및 Xiong [25 , 33]에 의해 관찰된 MgF 2 스팟 과 같은 핵 생성 사이트 는 관찰되지 않았습니다. Mirak은 또한 조성 분석을 기반으로 산화막에서 MgO 이전에 MgF 2 가 형성 되었다고 추측했는데 , 이는 이전 문헌에서 보고된 표면 필름 형성 과정(즉, MgF 2 이전에 형성된 MgO)과 반대 입니다. Mirak의 연구는 동반된 가스의 산화막 형성이 표면막의 산화막 형성과 상당히 다를 수 있음을 나타내었지만 산화막의 구조와 진화에 대해서는 밝히지 않았습니다.

또한 커버 가스에 캐리어 가스를 사용하는 것도 커버 가스와 액체 Mg 합금 사이의 반응에 영향을 미쳤습니다. SF 6 /air 는 용융 마그네슘의 점화를 피하기 위해 SF 6 /CO 2 운반 가스 [38] 보다 더 높은 함량의 SF 6을 필요로 하여 다른 가스 소비율을 나타냅니다. Liang et.al [39] 은 CO 2 가 캐리어 가스로 사용될 때 표면 필름에 탄소가 형성된다고 제안했는데 , 이는 SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 필름과 다릅니다 . Mg 연소 [40]에 대한 조사 에서 Mg 2 C 3 검출이 보고되었습니다.CO 2 연소 후 Mg 합금 샘플 에서 이는 Liang의 결과를 뒷받침할 뿐만 아니라 이중 산화막 결함에서 Mg 탄화물의 잠재적 형성을 나타냅니다.

여기에 보고된 작업은 다양한 커버 가스(즉, SF 6 /air 및 SF 6 /CO 2 )로 보호되는 AZ91 Mg 합금 주물에서 형성된 연행 결함의 거동과 진화에 대한 조사 입니다. 이러한 캐리어 가스는 액체 Mg 합금에 대해 다른 보호성을 가지며, 따라서 상응하는 동반 가스의 다른 소비율 및 발생 프로세스와 관련될 수 있습니다. AZ91 주물의 재현성에 대한 동반 가스 소비의 영향도 연구되었습니다.

2 . 실험

2.1 . 용융 및 주조

3kg의 AZ91 합금을 700 ± 5 °C의 연강 도가니에서 녹였습니다. AZ91 합금의 조성은 표 1 에 나타내었다 . 가열하기 전에 잉곳 표면의 모든 산화물 스케일을 기계가공으로 제거했습니다. 사용 된 커버 가스는 0.5 %이었다 SF 6 / 공기 또는 0.5 % SF 6 / CO 2 (부피. %) 다른 주물 6L / 분의 유량. 용융물은 15분 동안 0.3L/min의 유속으로 아르곤으로 가스를 제거한 다음 [41 , 42] , 모래 주형에 부었습니다. 붓기 전에 샌드 몰드 캐비티를 20분 동안 커버 가스로 플러싱했습니다 [22] . 잔류 용융물(약 1kg)이 도가니에서 응고되었습니다.

표 1 . 본 연구에 사용된 AZ91 합금의 조성(wt%).

아연미네소타마그네슘
9.40.610.150.020.0050.0017잔여

그림 1 (a)는 러너가 있는 주물의 치수를 보여줍니다. 탑 필링 시스템은 최종 주물에서 연행 결함을 생성하기 위해 의도적으로 사용되었습니다. Green과 Campbell [7 , 43] 은 탑 필링 시스템이 바텀 필링 시스템에 비해 주조 과정에서 더 많은 연행 현상(즉, 이중 필름)을 유발한다고 제안했습니다. 이 금형의 용융 흐름 시뮬레이션(Flow-3D 소프트웨어)은 연행 현상에 관한 Reilly의 모델 [44] 을 사용하여 최종 주조에 많은 양의 이중막이 포함될 것이라고 예측했습니다( 그림 1 에서 검은색 입자로 표시됨) . NS).

그림 1

수축 결함은 또한 주물의 기계적 특성과 재현성에 영향을 미칩니다. 이 연구는 주조 품질에 대한 이중 필름의 영향에 초점을 맞추었기 때문에 수축 결함이 발생하지 않도록 금형을 의도적으로 설계했습니다. ProCAST 소프트웨어를 사용한 응고 시뮬레이션은 그림 1c 와 같이 최종 주조에 수축 결함이 포함되지 않음을 보여주었습니다 . 캐스팅 건전함도 테스트바 가공 전 실시간 X-ray를 통해 확인했다.

모래 주형은 1wt를 함유한 수지 결합된 규사로 만들어졌습니다. % PEPSET 5230 수지 및 1wt. % PEPSET 5112 촉매. 모래는 또한 억제제로 작용하기 위해 2중량%의 Na 2 SiF 6 을 함유했습니다 .. 주입 온도는 700 ± 5 °C였습니다. 응고 후 러너바의 단면을 Sci-Lab Analytical Ltd로 보내 H 함량 분석(LECO 분석)을 하였고, 모든 H 함량 측정은 주조 공정 후 5일째에 실시하였다. 각각의 주물은 인장 강도 시험을 위해 클립 신장계가 있는 Zwick 1484 인장 시험기를 사용하여 40개의 시험 막대로 가공되었습니다. 파손된 시험봉의 파단면을 주사전자현미경(SEM, Philips JEOL7000)을 이용하여 가속전압 5~15kV로 조사하였다. 파손된 시험 막대, 도가니에서 응고된 잔류 Mg 합금 및 주조 러너를 동일한 SEM을 사용하여 단면화하고 연마하고 검사했습니다. CFEI Quanta 3D FEG FIB-SEM을 사용하여 FIB(집속 이온 빔 밀링 기술)에 의해 테스트 막대 파괴 표면에서 발견된 산화막의 단면을 노출했습니다. 분석에 필요한 산화막은 백금층으로 코팅하였다. 그런 다음 30kV로 가속된 갈륨 이온 빔이 산화막의 단면을 노출시키기 위해 백금 코팅 영역을 둘러싼 재료 기판을 밀링했습니다. 산화막 단면의 EDS 분석은 30kV의 가속 전압에서 FIB 장비를 사용하여 수행되었습니다.

2.2 . 산화 세포

전술 한 바와 같이, 몇몇 최근 연구자들은 마그네슘 합금의 용탕 표면에 형성된 보호막 조사 [38 , 39 , [46] , [47] , [48] , [49] , [50] , [51] , [52 ] . 이 실험 동안 사용된 커버 가스의 양이 충분하여 커버 가스에서 불화물의 고갈을 억제했습니다. 이 섹션에서 설명하는 실험은 엔트레인먼트 결함의 산화막의 진화를 연구하기 위해 커버 가스의 공급을 제한하는 밀봉된 산화 셀을 사용했습니다. 산화 셀에 포함된 커버 가스는 큰 크기의 “동반된 기포”로 간주되었습니다.

도 2에 도시된 바와 같이 , 산화셀의 본체는 내부 길이가 400mm, 내경이 32mm인 폐쇄형 연강관이었다. 수냉식 동관을 전지의 상부에 감았습니다. 튜브가 가열될 때 냉각 시스템은 상부와 하부 사이에 온도 차이를 만들어 내부 가스가 튜브 내에서 대류하도록 했습니다. 온도는 도가니 상단에 위치한 K형 열전대로 모니터링했습니다. Nieet al. [53] 은 Mg 합금 용융물의 표면 피막을 조사할 때 SF 6 커버 가스가 유지로의 강철 벽과 반응할 것이라고 제안했습니다 . 이 반응을 피하기 위해 강철 산화 전지의 내부 표면(그림 2 참조)) 및 열전대의 상반부는 질화붕소로 코팅되었습니다(Mg 합금은 질화붕소와 ​​접촉하지 않았습니다).

그림 2

실험 중에 고체 AZ91 합금 블록을 산화 셀 바닥에 위치한 마그네시아 도가니에 넣었습니다. 전지는 1L/min의 가스 유속으로 전기 저항로에서 100℃로 가열되었다. 원래의 갇힌 대기(즉, 공기)를 대체하기 위해 셀을 이 온도에서 20분 동안 유지했습니다. 그런 다음, 산화 셀을 700°C로 더 가열하여 AZ91 샘플을 녹였습니다. 그런 다음 가스 입구 및 출구 밸브가 닫혀 제한된 커버 가스 공급 하에서 산화를 위한 밀폐된 환경이 생성되었습니다. 그런 다음 산화 전지를 5분 간격으로 5분에서 30분 동안 700 ± 10°C에서 유지했습니다. 각 유지 시간이 끝날 때 세포를 물로 켄칭했습니다. 실온으로 냉각한 후 산화된 샘플을 절단하고 연마한 다음 SEM으로 검사했습니다.

3 . 결과

3.1 . SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 엔트레인먼트 결함의 구조 및 구성

0.5 % SF의 커버 가스 하에서 AZ91 주물에 형성된 유입 결함의 구조 및 조성 6 / 공기는 SEM 및 EDS에 의해 관찰되었다. 결과는 그림 3에 스케치된 엔트레인먼트 결함의 두 가지 유형이 있음을 나타냅니다 . (1) 산화막이 전통적인 단층 구조를 갖는 유형 A 결함 및 (2) 산화막이 2개 층을 갖는 유형 B 결함. 이러한 결함의 세부 사항은 다음에 소개되었습니다. 여기에서 비말동반 결함은 생물막 또는 이중 산화막으로도 알려져 있기 때문에 B형 결함의 산화막은 본 연구에서 “다층 산화막” 또는 “다층 구조”로 언급되었습니다. “이중 산화막 결함의 이중층 산화막”과 같은 혼란스러운 설명을 피하기 위해.

그림 3

그림 4 (ab)는 약 0.4μm 두께의 조밀한 단일층 산화막을 갖는 Type A 결함을 보여줍니다. 이 필름에서 산소, 불소, 마그네슘 및 알루미늄이 검출되었습니다( 그림 4c). 산화막은 마그네슘과 알루미늄의 산화물과 불화물의 혼합물로 추측됩니다. 불소의 검출은 동반된 커버 가스가 이 결함의 형성에 포함되어 있음을 보여주었습니다. 즉, Fig. 4 (a)에 나타난 기공 은 수축결함이나 수소기공도가 아니라 연행결함이었다. 알루미늄의 검출은 Xiong과 Wang의 이전 연구 [47 , 48] 와 다르며 , SF 6으로 보호된 AZ91 용융물의 표면 필름에 알루미늄이 포함되어 있지 않음을 보여주었습니다.커버 가스. 유황은 원소 맵에서 명확하게 인식할 수 없었지만 해당 ESD 스펙트럼에서 S-피크가 있었습니다.

그림 4

도 5 (ab)는 다층 산화막을 갖는 Type B 엔트레인먼트 결함을 나타낸다. 산화막의 조밀한 외부 층은 불소와 산소가 풍부하지만( 그림 5c) 상대적으로 다공성인 내부 층은 산소만 풍부하고(즉, 불소가 부족) 부분적으로 함께 성장하여 샌드위치 모양을 형성합니다. 구조. 따라서 외층은 불화물과 산화물의 혼합물이며 내층은 주로 산화물로 추정된다. 황은 EDX 스펙트럼에서만 인식될 수 있었고 요소 맵에서 명확하게 식별할 수 없었습니다. 이는 커버 가스의 작은 S 함량(즉, SF 6 의 0.5% 부피 함량 때문일 수 있음)커버 가스). 이 산화막에서는 이 산화막의 외층에 알루미늄이 포함되어 있지만 내층에서는 명확하게 검출할 수 없었다. 또한 Al의 분포가 고르지 않은 것으로 보입니다. 결함의 우측에는 필름에 알루미늄이 존재하지만 그 농도는 매트릭스보다 높은 것으로 식별할 수 없음을 알 수 있다. 그러나 결함의 왼쪽에는 알루미늄 농도가 훨씬 높은 작은 영역이 있습니다. 이러한 알루미늄의 불균일한 분포는 다른 결함(아래 참조)에서도 관찰되었으며, 이는 필름 내부 또는 아래에 일부 산화물 입자가 형성된 결과입니다.

그림 5

무화과 도 4 및 5 는 SF 6 /air 의 커버 가스 하에 주조된 AZ91 합금 샘플에서 형성된 연행 결함의 횡단면 관찰을 나타낸다 . 2차원 단면에서 관찰된 수치만으로 연행 결함을 특성화하는 것만으로는 충분하지 않습니다. 더 많은 이해를 돕기 위해 테스트 바의 파단면을 관찰하여 엔트레인먼트 결함(즉, 산화막)의 표면을 더 연구했습니다.

Fig. 6 (a)는 SF 6 /air 에서 생산된 AZ91 합금 인장시험봉의 파단면을 보여준다 . 파단면의 양쪽에서 대칭적인 어두운 영역을 볼 수 있습니다. 그림 6 (b)는 어두운 영역과 밝은 영역 사이의 경계를 보여줍니다. 밝은 영역은 들쭉날쭉하고 부서진 특징으로 구성되어 있는 반면, 어두운 영역의 표면은 비교적 매끄럽고 평평했습니다. 또한 EDS 결과( Fig. 6 c-d 및 Table 2) 불소, 산소, 황 및 질소는 어두운 영역에서만 검출되었으며, 이는 어두운 영역이 용융물에 동반된 표면 보호 필름임을 나타냅니다. 따라서 어두운 영역은 대칭적인 특성을 고려할 때 연행 결함이라고 제안할 수 있습니다. Al-합금 주조물의 파단면에서 유사한 결함이 이전에 보고되었습니다 [7] . 질화물은 테스트 바 파단면의 산화막에서만 발견되었지만 그림 1과 그림 4에 표시된 단면 샘플에서는 검출되지 않았습니다 4 및 5 . 근본적인 이유는 이러한 샘플에 포함된 질화물이 샘플 연마 과정에서 가수분해되었을 수 있기 때문입니다 [54] .

그림 6

표 2 . EDS 결과(wt.%)는 그림 6에 표시된 영역에 해당합니다 (커버 가스: SF 6 /공기).

영형마그네슘NS아연NSNS
그림 6 (b)의 어두운 영역3.481.3279.130.4713.630.570.080.73
그림 6 (b)의 밝은 영역3.5884.4811.250.68

도 1 및 도 2에 도시된 결함의 단면 관찰과 함께 도 4 및 도 5 를 참조하면, 인장 시험봉에 포함된 연행 결함의 구조를 도 6 (e) 와 같이 스케치하였다 . 결함에는 산화막으로 둘러싸인 동반된 가스가 포함되어 있어 테스트 바 내부에 보이드 섹션이 생성되었습니다. 파괴 과정에서 결함에 인장력이 가해지면 균열이 가장 약한 경로를 따라 전파되기 때문에 보이드 섹션에서 균열이 시작되어 연행 결함을 따라 전파됩니다 [55] . 따라서 최종적으로 시험봉이 파단되었을 때 Fig. 6 (a) 와 같이 시험봉의 양 파단면에 연행결함의 산화피막이 나타났다 .

3.2 . SF 6 /CO 2 에 형성된 연행 결함의 구조 및 조성

SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 엔트레인먼트 결함과 유사하게, 0.5% SF 6 /CO 2 의 커버 가스 아래에서 형성된 결함 도 두 가지 유형의 산화막(즉, 단층 및 다층 유형)을 가졌다. 도 7 (a)는 다층 산화막을 포함하는 엔트레인먼트 결함의 예를 도시한다. 결함에 대한 확대 관찰( 그림 7b )은 산화막의 내부 층이 함께 성장하여 SF 6 /air 의 분위기에서 형성된 결함과 유사한 샌드위치 같은 구조를 나타냄을 보여줍니다 ( 그림 7b). 5 나 ). EDS 스펙트럼( 그림 7c) 이 샌드위치형 구조의 접합부(내층)는 주로 산화마그네슘을 함유하고 있음을 보여주었다. 이 EDS 스펙트럼에서는 불소, 황, 알루미늄의 피크가 확인되었으나 그 양은 상대적으로 적었다. 대조적으로, 산화막의 외부 층은 조밀하고 불화물과 산화물의 혼합물로 구성되어 있습니다( 그림 7d-e).

그림 7

Fig. 8 (a)는 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 분위기에서 제작된 AZ91 합금 인장시험봉의 파단면의 연행결함을 보여준다 . 상응하는 EDS 결과(표 3)는 산화막이 불화물과 산화물을 함유함을 보여주었다. 황과 질소는 검출되지 않았습니다. 게다가, 확대 관찰(  8b)은 산화막 표면에 반점을 나타내었다. 반점의 직경은 수백 나노미터에서 수 마이크론 미터까지 다양했습니다.

그림 8

산화막의 구조와 조성을 보다 명확하게 나타내기 위해 테스트 바 파단면의 산화막 단면을 FIB 기법을 사용하여 현장에서 노출시켰다( 그림 9 ). 도 9a에 도시된 바와 같이 , 백금 코팅층과 Mg-Al 합금 기재 사이에 연속적인 산화피막이 발견되었다. 그림 9 (bc)는 다층 구조( 그림 9c 에서 빨간색 상자로 표시)를 나타내는 산화막에 대한 확대 관찰을 보여줍니다 . 바닥층은 불소와 산소가 풍부하고 불소와 산화물의 혼합물이어야 합니다 . 5 와 7, 유일한 산소가 풍부한 최상층은 도 1 및 도 2에 도시 된 “내층”과 유사하였다 5 및 7 .

그림 9

연속 필름을 제외하고 도 9 에 도시된 바와 같이 연속 필름 내부 또는 하부에서도 일부 개별 입자가 관찰되었다 . 그림 9( b) 의 산화막 좌측에서 Al이 풍부한 입자가 검출되었으며, 마그네슘과 산소 원소도 풍부하게 함유하고 있어 스피넬 Mg 2 AlO 4 로 추측할 수 있다 . 이러한 Mg 2 AlO 4 입자의 존재는 Fig. 5 와 같이 관찰된 필름의 작은 영역에 높은 알루미늄 농도와 알루미늄의 불균일한 분포의 원인이 된다 .(씨). 여기서 강조되어야 할 것은 연속 산화막의 바닥층의 다른 부분이 이 Al이 풍부한 입자보다 적은 양의 알루미늄을 함유하고 있지만, 그림 9c는 이 바닥층의 알루미늄 양이 여전히 무시할 수 없는 수준임을 나타냅니다 . , 특히 필름의 외층과 비교할 때. 도 9b에 도시된 산화막의 우측 아래에서 입자가 검출되어 Mg와 O가 풍부하여 MgO인 것으로 추측되었다. Wang의 결과에 따르면 [56], Mg 용융물과 Mg 증기의 산화에 의해 Mg 용융물의 표면에 많은 이산 MgO 입자가 형성될 수 있다. 우리의 현재 연구에서 관찰된 MgO 입자는 같은 이유로 인해 형성될 수 있습니다. 실험 조건의 차이로 인해 더 적은 Mg 용융물이 기화되거나 O2와 반응할 수 있으므로 우리 작업에서 형성되는 MgO 입자는 소수에 불과합니다. 또한 필름에서 풍부한 탄소가 발견되어 CO 2 가 용융물과 반응하여 탄소 또는 탄화물을 형성할 수 있음을 보여줍니다 . 이 탄소 농도는 표 3에 나타낸 산화막의 상대적으로 높은 탄소 함량 (즉, 어두운 영역) 과 일치하였다 . 산화막 옆 영역.

표 3 . 도 8에 도시된 영역에 상응하는 EDS 결과(wt.%) (커버 가스: SF 6 / CO 2 ).

영형마그네슘NS아연NSNS
그림 8 (a)의 어두운 영역7.253.6469.823.827.030.86
그림 8 (a)의 밝은 영역2.100.4482.8313.261.36

테스트 바 파단면( 도 9 ) 에서 산화막의 이 단면 관찰은 도 6 (e)에 도시된 엔트레인먼트 결함의 개략도를 추가로 확인했다 . SF 6 /CO 2 와 SF 6 /air 의 서로 다른 분위기에서 형성된 엔트레인먼트 결함 은 유사한 구조를 가졌지만 그 조성은 달랐다.

3.3 . 산화 전지에서 산화막의 진화

섹션 3.1 및 3.2 의 결과 는 SF 6 /air 및 SF 6 /CO 2 의 커버 가스 아래에서 AZ91 주조에서 형성된 연행 결함의 구조 및 구성을 보여줍니다 . 산화 반응의 다른 단계는 연행 결함의 다른 구조와 조성으로 이어질 수 있습니다. Campbell은 동반된 가스가 주변 용융물과 반응할 수 있다고 추측했지만 Mg 합금 용융물과 포획된 커버 가스 사이에 반응이 발생했다는 보고는 거의 없습니다. 이전 연구자들은 일반적으로 개방된 환경에서 Mg 합금 용융물과 커버 가스 사이의 반응에 초점을 맞췄습니다 [38 , 39 , [46] , [47][48] , [49] , [50] , [51] , [52] , 이는 용융물에 갇힌 커버 가스의 상황과 다릅니다. AZ91 합금에서 엔트레인먼트 결함의 형성을 더 이해하기 위해 엔트레인먼트 결함의 산화막의 진화 과정을 산화 셀을 사용하여 추가로 연구했습니다.

.도 10 (a 및 d) 0.5 % 방송 SF 보호 산화 셀에서 5 분 동안 유지 된 표면 막 (6) / 공기. 불화물과 산화물(MgF 2 와 MgO) 로 이루어진 단 하나의 층이 있었습니다 . 이 표면 필름에서. 황은 EDS 스펙트럼에서 검출되었지만 그 양이 너무 적어 원소 맵에서 인식되지 않았습니다. 이 산화막의 구조 및 조성은 도 4 에 나타낸 엔트레인먼트 결함의 단층막과 유사하였다 .

그림 10

10분의 유지 시간 후, 얇은 (O,S)가 풍부한 상부층(약 700nm)이 예비 F-농축 필름에 나타나 그림 10 (b 및 e) 에서와 같이 다층 구조를 형성했습니다 . ). (O, S)가 풍부한 최상층의 두께는 유지 시간이 증가함에 따라 증가했습니다. Fig. 10 (c, f) 에서 보는 바와 같이 30분간 유지한 산화막도 다층구조를 가지고 있으나 (O,S)가 풍부한 최상층(약 2.5μm)의 두께가 10분 산화막의 그것. 도 10 (bc) 에 도시 된 다층 산화막 은 도 5에 도시된 샌드위치형 결함의 막과 유사한 외관을 나타냈다 .

도 10에 도시된 산화막의 상이한 구조는 커버 가스의 불화물이 AZ91 합금 용융물과의 반응으로 인해 우선적으로 소모될 것임을 나타내었다. 불화물이 고갈된 후, 잔류 커버 가스는 액체 AZ91 합금과 추가로 반응하여 산화막에 상부 (O, S)가 풍부한 층을 형성했습니다. 따라서 도 1 및 도 3에 도시된 연행 결함의 상이한 구조 및 조성 4 와 5 는 용융물과 갇힌 커버 가스 사이의 진행 중인 산화 반응 때문일 수 있습니다.

이 다층 구조는 Mg 합금 용융물에 형성된 보호 표면 필름에 관한 이전 간행물 [38 , [46] , [47] , [48] , [49] , [50] , [51] 에서 보고되지 않았습니다 . . 이는 이전 연구원들이 무제한의 커버 가스로 실험을 수행했기 때문에 커버 가스의 불화물이 고갈되지 않는 상황을 만들었기 때문일 수 있습니다. 따라서 엔트레인먼트 결함의 산화피막은 도 10에 도시된 산화피막과 유사한 거동특성을 가지나 [38 ,[46] , [47] , [48] , [49] , [50] , [51] .

SF 유지 산화막와 마찬가지로 6 / 공기, SF에 형성된 산화물 막 (6) / CO 2는 또한 세포 산화 다른 유지 시간과 다른 구조를 가지고 있었다. .도 11 (a)는 AZ91 개최 산화막, 0.5 %의 커버 가스 하에서 SF 표면 용융 도시 6 / CO 2, 5 분. 이 필름은 MgF 2 로 이루어진 단층 구조를 가졌다 . 이 영화에서는 MgO의 존재를 확인할 수 없었다. 30분의 유지 시간 후, 필름은 다층 구조를 가졌다; 내부 층은 조밀하고 균일한 외관을 가지며 MgF 2 로 구성 되고 외부 층은 MgF 2 혼합물및 MgO. 0.5%SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 표면막과 다른 이 막에서는 황이 검출되지 않았다 . 따라서, 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 의 커버 가스 내의 불화물 도 막 성장 과정의 초기 단계에서 우선적으로 소모되었다. SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 막과 비교하여 SF 6 /CO 2 에서 형성된 막에서 MgO 는 나중에 나타났고 황화물은 30분 이내에 나타나지 않았다. 이는 SF 6 /air 에서 필름의 형성과 진화 가 SF 6 /CO 2 보다 빠르다 는 것을 의미할 수 있습니다 . CO 2 후속적으로 용융물과 반응하여 MgO를 형성하는 반면, 황 함유 화합물은 커버 가스에 축적되어 반응하여 매우 늦은 단계에서 황화물을 형성할 수 있습니다(산화 셀에서 30분 후).

그림 11

4 . 논의

4.1 . SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 연행 결함의 진화

Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows( http://www.hsc-chemistry.net/ )의 HSC 소프트웨어를 사용하여 갇힌 기체와 액체 AZ91 합금 사이에서 발생할 수 있는 반응을 탐색하는 데 필요한 열역학 계산을 수행했습니다. 계산에 대한 솔루션은 소량의 커버 가스(즉, 갇힌 기포 내의 양)와 AZ91 합금 용융물 사이의 반응 과정에서 어떤 생성물이 가장 형성될 가능성이 있는지 제안합니다.

실험에서 압력은 1기압으로, 온도는 700°C로 설정했습니다. 커버 가스의 사용량은 7 × 10으로 가정 하였다 -7  약 0.57 cm의 양으로 kg 3 (3.14 × 10 -6  0.5 % SF위한 kmol) 6 / 공기, 0.35 cm (3) (3.12 × 10 – 8  kmol) 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 . 포획된 가스와 접촉하는 AZ91 합금 용융물의 양은 모든 반응을 완료하기에 충분한 것으로 가정되었습니다. SF 6 의 분해 생성물 은 SF 5 , SF 4 , SF 3 , SF 2 , F 2 , S(g), S 2(g) 및 F(g) [57] , [58] , [59] , [60] .

그림 12 는 AZ91 합금과 0.5%SF 6 /air 사이의 반응에 대한 열역학적 계산의 평형 다이어그램을 보여줍니다 . 다이어그램에서 10 -15  kmol 미만의 반응물 및 생성물은 표시되지 않았습니다. 이는 존재 하는 SF 6 의 양 (≈ 1.57 × 10 -10  kmol) 보다 5배 적 으므로 영향을 미치지 않습니다. 실제적인 방법으로 과정을 관찰했습니다.

그림 12

이 반응 과정은 3단계로 나눌 수 있다.

1단계 : 불화물의 형성. AZ91 용융물은 SF 6 및 그 분해 생성물과 우선적으로 반응하여 MgF 2 , AlF 3 및 ZnF 2 를 생성 합니다. 그러나 ZnF 2 의 양 이 너무 적어서 실제적으로 검출되지  않았을 수 있습니다(  MgF 2 의 3 × 10 -10 kmol에 비해 ZnF 2 1.25 × 10 -12 kmol ). 섹션 3.1 – 3.3에 표시된 모든 산화막 . 한편, 잔류 가스에 황이 SO 2 로 축적되었다 .

2단계 : 산화물의 형성. 액체 AZ91 합금이 포획된 가스에서 사용 가능한 모든 불화물을 고갈시킨 후, Mg와의 반응으로 인해 AlF 3 및 ZnF 2 의 양이 빠르게 감소했습니다. O 2 (g) 및 SO 2 는 AZ91 용융물과 반응하여 MgO, Al 2 O 3 , MgAl 2 O 4 , ZnO, ZnSO 4 및 MgSO 4 를 형성 합니다. 그러나 ZnO 및 ZnSO 4 의 양은 EDS에 의해 실제로 발견되기에는 너무 적었을 것입니다(예: 9.5 × 10 -12  kmol의 ZnO, 1.38 × 10 -14  kmol의 ZnSO 4 , 대조적으로 4.68 × 10−10  kmol의 MgF 2 , X 축의 AZ91 양 이 2.5 × 10 -9  kmol일 때). 실험 사례에서 커버 가스의 F 농도는 매우 낮고 전체 농도 f O는 훨씬 높습니다. 따라서 1단계와 2단계, 즉 불화물과 산화물의 형성은 반응 초기에 동시에 일어나 그림 1과 2와 같이 불화물과 산화물의 가수층 혼합물이 형성될 수 있다 . 4 및 10 (a). 내부 층은 산화물로 구성되어 있지만 불화물은 커버 가스에서 F 원소가 완전히 고갈된 후에 형성될 수 있습니다.

단계 1-2는 도 10 에 도시 된 다층 구조의 형성 과정을 이론적으로 검증하였다 .

산화막 내의 MgAl 2 O 4 및 Al 2 O 3 의 양은 도 4에 도시된 산화막과 일치하는 검출하기에 충분한 양이었다 . 그러나, 도 10 에 도시된 바와 같이, 산화셀에서 성장된 산화막에서는 알루미늄의 존재를 인식할 수 없었다 . 이러한 Al의 부재는 표면 필름과 AZ91 합금 용융물 사이의 다음 반응으로 인한 것일 수 있습니다.(1)

Al 2 O 3  + 3Mg + = 3MgO + 2Al, △G(700°C) = -119.82 kJ/mol(2)

Mg + MgAl 2 O 4  = MgO + Al, △G(700°C) = -106.34 kJ/mol이는 반응물이 서로 완전히 접촉한다는 가정 하에 열역학적 계산이 수행되었기 때문에 HSC 소프트웨어로 시뮬레이션할 수 없었습니다. 그러나 실제 공정에서 AZ91 용융물과 커버 가스는 보호 표면 필름의 존재로 인해 서로 완전히 접촉할 수 없습니다.

3단계 : 황화물과 질화물의 형성. 30분의 유지 시간 후, 산화 셀의 기상 불화물 및 산화물이 고갈되어 잔류 가스와 용융 반응을 허용하여 초기 F-농축 또는 (F, O )이 풍부한 표면 필름, 따라서 그림 10 (b 및 c)에 표시된 관찰된 다층 구조를 생성합니다 . 게다가, 질소는 모든 반응이 완료될 때까지 AZ91 용융물과 반응했습니다. 도 6 에 도시 된 산화막 은 질화물 함량으로 인해 이 반응 단계에 해당할 수 있다. 그러나, 그 결과는 도 1 및 도 5에 도시 된 연마된 샘플에서 질화물이 검출되지 않음을 보여준다. 4 와 5, 그러나 테스트 바 파단면에서만 발견됩니다. 질화물은 다음과 같이 샘플 준비 과정에서 가수분해될 수 있습니다 [54] .(삼)

Mg 3 N 2  + 6H 2 O = 3Mg(OH) 2  + 2NH 3 ↑(4)

AlN+ 3H 2 O = Al(OH) 3  + NH 3 ↑

또한 Schmidt et al. [61] 은 Mg 3 N 2 와 AlN이 반응하여 3원 질화물(Mg 3 Al n N n+2, n=1, 2, 3…) 을 형성할 수 있음을 발견했습니다 . HSC 소프트웨어에는 삼원 질화물 데이터베이스가 포함되어 있지 않아 계산에 추가할 수 없습니다. 이 단계의 산화막은 또한 삼원 질화물을 포함할 수 있습니다.

4.2 . SF 6 /CO 2 에서 형성된 연행 결함의 진화

도 13 은 AZ91 합금과 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 사이의 열역학적 계산 결과를 보여준다 . 이 반응 과정도 세 단계로 나눌 수 있습니다.

그림 13

1단계 : 불화물의 형성. SF 6 및 그 분해 생성물은 AZ91 용융물에 의해 소비되어 MgF 2 , AlF 3 및 ZnF 2 를 형성했습니다 . 0.5% SF 6 /air 에서 AZ91의 반응에서와 같이 ZnF 2 의 양 이 너무 작아서 실제적으로 감지되지  않았습니다( 2.67 x 10 -10  kmol의 MgF 2 에 비해 ZnF 2 1.51 x 10 -13 kmol ). S와 같은 잔류 가스 트랩에 축적 유황 2 (g) 및 (S)의 일부분 (2) (g)가 CO와 반응하여 2 SO 형성하는 2및 CO. 이 반응 단계의 생성물은 도 11 (a)에 도시된 필름과 일치하며 , 이는 불화물만을 함유하는 단일 층 구조를 갖는다.

2단계 : 산화물의 형성. ALF 3 및 ZnF 2 MgF로 형성 용융 AZ91 마그네슘의 반응 2 , Al 및 Zn으로한다. SO 2 는 소모되기 시작하여 표면 필름에 산화물을 생성 하고 커버 가스에 S 2 (g)를 생성했습니다. 한편, CO 2 는 AZ91 용융물과 직접 반응하여 CO, MgO, ZnO 및 Al 2 O 3 를 형성 합니다. 도 1에 도시 된 산화막 9 및 11 (b)는 산소가 풍부한 층과 다층 구조로 인해 이 반응 단계에 해당할 수 있습니다.

커버 가스의 CO는 AZ91 용융물과 추가로 반응하여 C를 생성할 수 있습니다. 이 탄소는 온도가 감소할 때(응고 기간 동안) Mg와 추가로 반응하여 Mg 탄화물을 형성할 수 있습니다 [62] . 이것은 도 4에 도시된 산화막의 탄소 함량이 높은 이유일 수 있다 8 – 9 . Liang et al. [39] 또한 SO 2 /CO 2 로 보호된 AZ91 합금 표면 필름에서 탄소 검출을 보고했습니다 . 생성된 Al 2 O 3 는 MgO와 더 결합하여 MgAl 2 O [63]를 형성할 수 있습니다 . 섹션 4.1 에서 논의된 바와 같이, 알루미나 및 스피넬은 도 11 에 도시된 바와 같이 표면 필름에 알루미늄 부재를 야기하는 Mg와 반응할 수 있다 .

3단계 : 황화물의 형성. AZ91은 용융물 S 소비하기 시작 2 인 ZnS와 MGS 형성 갇힌 잔류 가스 (g)를. 이러한 반응은 반응 과정의 마지막 단계까지 일어나지 않았으며, 이는 Fig. 7 (c)에 나타난 결함의 S-함량 이 적은 이유일 수 있다 .

요약하면, 열역학적 계산은 AZ91 용융물이 커버 가스와 반응하여 먼저 불화물을 형성한 다음 마지막에 산화물과 황화물을 형성할 것임을 나타냅니다. 다른 반응 단계에서 산화막은 다른 구조와 조성을 가질 것입니다.

4.3 . 운반 가스가 동반 가스 소비 및 AZ91 주물의 재현성에 미치는 영향

SF 6 /air 및 SF 6 /CO 2 에서 형성된 연행 결함의 진화 과정은 4.1절 과 4.2  에서 제안되었습니다 . 이론적인 계산은 실제 샘플에서 발견되는 해당 산화막과 관련하여 검증되었습니다. 연행 결함 내의 대기는 Al-합금 시스템과 다른 시나리오에서 액체 Mg-합금과의 반응으로 인해 효율적으로 소모될 수 있습니다(즉, 연행된 기포의 질소가 Al-합금 용융물과 효율적으로 반응하지 않을 것입니다 [64 , 65] 그러나 일반적으로 “질소 연소”라고 하는 액체 Mg 합금에서 질소가 더 쉽게 소모될 것입니다 [66] ).

동반된 가스와 주변 액체 Mg-합금 사이의 반응은 동반된 가스를 산화막 내에서 고체 화합물(예: MgO)로 전환하여 동반 결함의 공극 부피를 감소시켜 결함(예: 공기의 동반된 가스가 주변의 액체 Mg 합금에 의해 고갈되면 용융 온도가 700 °C이고 액체 Mg 합금의 깊이가 10 cm라고 가정할 때 최종 고체 제품의 총 부피는 0.044가 됩니다. 갇힌 공기가 취한 초기 부피의 %).

연행 결함의 보이드 부피 감소와 해당 주조 특성 사이의 관계는 알루미늄 합금 주조에서 널리 연구되었습니다. Nyahumwa와 Campbell [16] 은 HIP(Hot Isostatic Pressing) 공정이 Al-합금 주물의 연행 결함이 붕괴되고 산화물 표면이 접촉하게 되었다고 보고했습니다. 주물의 피로 수명은 HIP 이후 개선되었습니다. Nyahumwa와 Campbell [16] 도 서로 접촉하고 있는 이중 산화막의 잠재적인 결합을 제안했지만 이를 뒷받침하는 직접적인 증거는 없었습니다. 이 결합 현상은 Aryafar et.al에 의해 추가로 조사되었습니다. [8], 그는 강철 튜브에서 산화물 스킨이 있는 두 개의 Al-합금 막대를 다시 녹인 다음 응고된 샘플에 대해 인장 강도 테스트를 수행했습니다. 그들은 Al-합금 봉의 산화물 스킨이 서로 강하게 결합되어 용융 유지 시간이 연장됨에 따라 더욱 강해짐을 발견했으며, 이는 이중 산화막 내 동반된 가스의 소비로 인한 잠재적인 “치유” 현상을 나타냅니다. 구조. 또한 Raidszadeh와 Griffiths [9 , 19] 는 연행 가스가 반응하는 데 더 긴 시간을 갖도록 함으로써 응고 전 용융 유지 시간을 연장함으로써 Al-합금 주물의 재현성에 대한 연행 결함의 부정적인 영향을 성공적으로 줄였습니다. 주변이 녹습니다.

앞서 언급한 연구를 고려할 때, Mg 합금 주물에서 혼입 가스의 소비는 다음 두 가지 방식으로 혼입 결함의 부정적인 영향을 감소시킬 수 있습니다.

(1) 이중 산화막의 결합 현상 . 도 5 및 도 7 에 도시 된 샌드위치형 구조 는 이중 산화막 구조의 잠재적인 결합을 나타내었다. 그러나 산화막의 결합으로 인한 강도 증가를 정량화하기 위해서는 더 많은 증거가 필요합니다.

(2) 연행 결함의 보이드 체적 감소 . 주조품의 품질에 대한 보이드 부피 감소의 긍정적인 효과는 HIP 프로세스 [67]에 의해 널리 입증되었습니다 . 섹션 4.1 – 4.2 에서 논의된 진화 과정과 같이 , 동반된 가스와 주변 AZ91 합금 용융물 사이의 지속적인 반응으로 인해 동반 결함의 산화막이 함께 성장할 수 있습니다. 최종 고체 생성물의 부피는 동반된 기체에 비해 상당히 작았다(즉, 이전에 언급된 바와 같이 0.044%).

따라서, 혼입 가스의 소모율(즉, 산화막의 성장 속도)은 AZ91 합금 주물의 품질을 향상시키는 중요한 매개변수가 될 수 있습니다. 이에 따라 산화 셀의 산화막 성장 속도를 추가로 조사했습니다.

도 14 는 상이한 커버 가스(즉, 0.5%SF 6 /air 및 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 ) 에서의 표면 필름 성장 속도의 비교를 보여준다 . 필름 두께 측정을 위해 각 샘플의 15개의 임의 지점을 선택했습니다. 95% 신뢰구간(95%CI)은 막두께의 변화가 가우시안 분포를 따른다는 가정하에 계산하였다. 0.5%SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 모든 표면막이 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 에서 형성된 것보다 빠르게 성장함을 알 수 있다 . 다른 성장률은 0.5%SF 6 /air 의 연행 가스 소비율 이 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 보다 더 높음 을 시사했습니다., 이는 동반된 가스의 소비에 더 유리했습니다.

그림 14

산화 셀에서 액체 AZ91 합금과 커버 가스의 접촉 면적(즉, 도가니의 크기)은 많은 양의 용융물과 가스를 고려할 때 상대적으로 작았다는 점에 유의해야 합니다. 결과적으로, 산화 셀 내에서 산화막 성장을 위한 유지 시간은 비교적 길었다(즉, 5-30분). 하지만, 실제 주조에 함유 된 혼입 결함은 (상대적으로 매우 적은, 즉, 수 미크론의 크기에 도시 된 바와 같이 ,도 3. – 6 및 [7]), 동반된 가스는 주변 용융물로 완전히 둘러싸여 상대적으로 큰 접촉 영역을 생성합니다. 따라서 커버 가스와 AZ91 합금 용융물의 반응 시간은 비교적 짧을 수 있습니다. 또한 실제 Mg 합금 모래 주조의 응고 시간은 몇 분일 수 있습니다(예: Guo [68] 은 직경 60mm의 Mg 합금 모래 주조가 응고되는 데 4분이 필요하다고 보고했습니다). 따라서 Mg-합금 용융주조 과정에서 포획된 동반된 가스는 특히 응고 시간이 긴 모래 주물 및 대형 주물의 경우 주변 용융물에 의해 쉽게 소모될 것으로 예상할 수 있습니다.

따라서, 동반 가스의 다른 소비율과 관련된 다른 커버 가스(0.5%SF 6 /air 및 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 )가 최종 주물의 재현성에 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다. 이 가정을 검증하기 위해 0.5%SF 6 /air 및 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 에서 생산된 AZ91 주물 을 기계적 평가를 위해 테스트 막대로 가공했습니다. Weibull 분석은 선형 최소 자승(LLS) 방법과 비선형 최소 자승(비 LLS) 방법을 모두 사용하여 수행되었습니다 [69] .

그림 15 (ab)는 LLS 방법으로 얻은 UTS 및 AZ91 합금 주물의 연신율의 전통적인 2-p 선형 Weibull 플롯을 보여줍니다. 사용된 추정기는 P= (i-0.5)/N이며, 이는 모든 인기 있는 추정기 중 가장 낮은 편향을 유발하는 것으로 제안되었습니다 [69 , 70] . SF 6 /air 에서 생산된 주물 은 UTS Weibull 계수가 16.9이고 연신율 Weibull 계수가 5.0입니다. 대조적으로, SF 6 /CO 2 에서 생산된 주물의 UTS 및 연신 Weibull 계수는 각각 7.7과 2.7로, SF 6 /CO 2 에 의해 보호된 주물의 재현성이 SF 6 /air 에서 생산된 것보다 훨씬 낮음을 시사합니다. .

그림 15

또한 저자의 이전 출판물 [69] 은 선형화된 Weibull 플롯의 단점을 보여주었으며, 이는 Weibull 추정 의 더 높은 편향과 잘못된 2 중단을 유발할 수 있습니다 . 따라서 그림 15 (cd) 와 같이 Non-LLS Weibull 추정이 수행되었습니다 . SF 6 /공기주조물 의 UTS Weibull 계수 는 20.8인 반면, SF 6 /CO 2 하에서 생산된 주조물의 UTS Weibull 계수는 11.4로 낮아 재현성에서 분명한 차이를 보였다. 또한 SF 6 /air elongation(El%) 데이터 세트는 SF 6 /CO 2 의 elongation 데이터 세트보다 더 높은 Weibull 계수(모양 = 5.8)를 가졌습니다.(모양 = 3.1). 따라서 LLS 및 Non-LLS 추정 모두 SF 6 /공기 주조가 SF 6 /CO 2 주조 보다 더 높은 재현성을 갖는다고 제안했습니다 . CO 2 대신 공기를 사용 하면 혼입된 가스의 더 빠른 소비에 기여하여 결함 내의 공극 부피를 줄일 수 있다는 방법을 지원합니다 . 따라서 0.5%SF 6 /CO 2 대신 0.5%SF 6 /air를 사용 하면(동반된 가스의 소비율이 증가함) AZ91 주물의 재현성이 향상되었습니다.

그러나 모든 Mg 합금 주조 공장이 현재 작업에서 사용되는 주조 공정을 따랐던 것은 아니라는 점에 유의해야 합니다. Mg의 합금 용탕 본 작업은 탈기에 따라서, 동반 가스의 소비에 수소의 영향을 감소 (즉, 수소 잠재적 동반 가스의 고갈 억제, 동반 된 기체로 확산 될 수있다 [7 , 71 , 72] ). 대조적으로, 마그네슘 합금 주조 공장에서는 마그네슘을 주조할 때 ‘가스 문제’가 없고 따라서 인장 특성에 큰 변화가 없다고 널리 믿어지기 때문에 마그네슘 합금 용융물은 일반적으로 탈기되지 않습니다 [73] . 연구에 따르면 Mg 합금 주물의 기계적 특성에 대한 수소의 부정적인 영향 [41 ,42 , 73] , 탈기 공정은 마그네슘 합금 주조 공장에서 여전히 인기가 없습니다.

또한 현재 작업에서 모래 주형 공동은 붓기 전에 SF 6 커버 가스 로 플러싱되었습니다 [22] . 그러나 모든 Mg 합금 주조 공장이 이러한 방식으로 금형 캐비티를 플러싱한 것은 아닙니다. 예를 들어, Stone Foundry Ltd(영국)는 커버 가스 플러싱 대신 유황 분말을 사용했습니다. 그들의 주물 내의 동반된 가스 는 보호 가스라기 보다는 SO 2 /공기일 수 있습니다 .

따라서 본 연구의 결과는 CO 2 대신 공기를 사용 하는 것이 최종 주조의 재현성을 향상시키는 것으로 나타났지만 다른 산업용 Mg 합금 주조 공정과 관련하여 캐리어 가스의 영향을 확인하기 위해서는 여전히 추가 조사가 필요합니다.

7 . 결론

1.

AZ91 합금에 형성된 연행 결함이 관찰되었습니다. 그들의 산화막은 단층과 다층의 두 가지 유형의 구조를 가지고 있습니다. 다층 산화막은 함께 성장하여 최종 주조에서 샌드위치 같은 구조를 형성할 수 있습니다.2.

실험 결과와 이론적인 열역학적 계산은 모두 갇힌 가스의 불화물이 황을 소비하기 전에 고갈되었음을 보여주었습니다. 이중 산화막 결함의 3단계 진화 과정이 제안되었습니다. 산화막은 진화 단계에 따라 다양한 화합물 조합을 포함했습니다. SF 6 /air 에서 형성된 결함 은 SF 6 /CO 2 에서 형성된 것과 유사한 구조를 갖지만 산화막의 조성은 달랐다. 엔트레인먼트 결함의 산화막 형성 및 진화 과정은 이전에 보고된 Mg 합금 표면막(즉, MgF 2 이전에 형성된 MgO)의 것과 달랐다 .삼.

산화막의 성장 속도는 SF하에 큰 것으로 입증되었다 (6) / SF보다 공기 6 / CO 2 손상 봉입 가스의 빠른 소비에 기여한다. AZ91 합금 주물의 재현성은 SF 6 /CO 2 대신 SF 6 /air를 사용할 때 향상되었습니다 .

감사의 말

저자는 EPSRC LiME 보조금 EP/H026177/1의 자금 지원 과 WD Griffiths 박사와 Adrian Carden(버밍엄 대학교)의 도움을 인정합니다. 주조 작업은 University of Birmingham에서 수행되었습니다.

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Figures-Effects of sinusoidal oscillating laser beam on weld formation, melt flow and grain structure during aluminum alloys lap welding

알루미늄 합금 겹침 용접 중 용접 형성, 용융 흐름 및 입자 구조에 대한 사인파 발진 레이저 빔의 영향

Effects of sinusoidal oscillating laser beam on weld formation, melt flow and grain structure during aluminum alloys lap welding

Lin Chen, Gaoyang Mi, Xiong Zhang, Chunming Wang
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China

Abstract

레이저 사인파 진동(사인) 용접 및 레이저 용접(SLW)에서 1.5mm 6061/5182 알루미늄 합금 박판 랩 조인트의 수치 모델이 온도 분포와 용융 흐름을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 개발되었습니다.

SLW의 일반적인 에너지 분포와 달리 레이저 빔의 사인파 진동은 에너지 분포를 크게 균질화하고 에너지 피크를 줄였습니다. 에너지 피크는 사인 용접의 양쪽에 위치하여 톱니 모양의 단면이 형성되었습니다. 이 논문은 시뮬레이션을 통해 응고 미세구조에 대한 온도 구배(G)와 응고 속도(R)의 영향을 설명했습니다.

결과는 사인 용접의 중심이 낮은 G/R로 더 넓은 영역을 가짐으로써 더 넓은 등축 결정립 영역의 형성을 촉진하고 더 큰 GR로 인해 주상 결정립이 더 가늘다는 것을 나타냅니다. 다공성 및 비관통 용접은 레이저 사인파 진동에 의해 얻어졌습니다.

그 이유는 용융 풀의 부피가 확대되고 열쇠 구멍의 부피 비율이 감소하며 용융 풀의 난류가 완만해졌기 때문이며, 이는 용융 흐름의 고속 이미징 및 시뮬레이션 결과에서 관찰되었습니다. 두 용접부의 인장시험에서 융착선을 따라 인장파괴 형태를 보였고 사인 용접부의 인장강도가 SLW 용접부보다 유의하게 우수하였습니다.

이는 등축 결정립 영역이 넓을수록 균열 경향이 감소하고 파단 위치에 근접한 입자 크기가 미세하기 때문입니다. 결함이 없고 우수한 용접은 신에너지 자동차 산업에 매우 중요합니다.

A numerical model of 1.5 mm 6061/5182 aluminum alloys thin sheets lap joints under laser sinusoidal oscillation (sine) welding and laser welding (SLW) weld was developed to simulate temperature distribution and melt flow. Unlike the common energy distribution of SLW, the sinusoidal oscillation of laser beam greatly homogenized the energy distribution and reduced the energy peak. The energy peaks were located at both sides of the sine weld, resulting in the tooth-shaped sectional formation. This paper illustrated the effect of the temperature gradient (G) and solidification rate (R) on the solidification microstructure by simulation. Results indicated that the center of the sine weld had a wider area with low G/R, promoting the formation of a wider equiaxed grain zone, and the columnar grains were slenderer because of greater GR. The porosity-free and non-penetration welds were obtained by the laser sinusoidal oscillation. The reasons were that the molten pool volume was enlarged, the volume proportion of keyhole was reduced and the turbulence in the molten pool was gentled, which was observed by the high-speed imaging and simulation results of melt flow. The tensile test of both welds showed a tensile fracture form along the fusion line, and the tensile strength of sine weld was significantly better than that of the SLW weld. This was because that the wider equiaxed grain area reduced the tendency of cracks and the finer grain size close to the fracture location. Defect-free and excellent welds are of great significance to the new energy vehicles industry.

Keywords

Laser weldingSinusoidal oscillatingEnergy distributionNumerical simulationMolten pool flowGrain structure

Figures-Effects of sinusoidal oscillating laser beam on weld formation, melt flow and grain structure during aluminum alloys lap welding
Figures-Effects of sinusoidal oscillating laser beam on weld formation, melt flow and grain structure during aluminum alloys lap welding
Fig. 5 Comparison of experimental SEM image and CtFD simulated melt pool with beam diameters of(a)700 μm,(b)1000 μm, and(c)1300 μm and an absorption rate of 0.3. Electron beam power and scan speed are 900 W and 100 mm s-1, respectively

추가 생산용 전자빔 조사에 의한 316L 스테인리스 용융 · 응고 거동

Melting and Solidification Behavior of 316L Steel Induced by Electron-Beam Irradiation for Additive Manufacturing

付加製造用電子ビーム照射による 316L ステンレス鋼の溶融・凝固挙動

奥 川 将 行*・宮 田 雄一朗*・王     雷*・能 勢 和 史*
小 泉 雄一郎*・中 野 貴 由*
Masayuki OKUGAWA, Yuichiro MIYATA, Lei WANG, Kazufumi NOSE,
Yuichiro KOIZUMI and Takayoshi NAKANO

Abstract

적층 제조(AM) 기술은 복잡한 형상의 3D 부품을 쉽게 만들고 미세 구조 제어를 통해 재료 특성을 크게 제어할 수 있기 때문에 많은 관심을 받았습니다. PBF(Powderbed fusion) 방식의 AM 공정에서는 금속 분말을 레이저나 전자빔으로 녹이고 응고시키는 과정을 반복하여 3D 부품을 제작합니다.

일반적으로 응고 미세구조는 Hunt[Mater. 과학. 영어 65, 75(1984)]. 그러나 CET 이론이 일반 316L 스테인리스강에서도 높은 G와 R로 인해 PBF형 AM 공정에 적용될 수 있을지는 불확실하다.

본 연구에서는 미세구조와 응고 조건 간의 관계를 밝히기 위해 전자빔 조사에 의해 유도된 316L 강의 응고 미세구조를 분석하고 CtFD(Computational Thermal-Fluid Dynamics) 방법을 사용하여 고체/액체 계면에서의 응고 조건을 평가했습니다.

CET 이론과 반대로 높은 G 조건에서 등축 결정립이 종종 형성되는 것으로 밝혀졌다. CtFD 시뮬레이션은 약 400 mm s-1의 속도까지 유체 흐름이 있음을 보여 주며 수상 돌기의 파편 및 이동의 영향으로 등축 결정립이 형성됨을 시사했습니다.

Additive manufacturing(AM)technologies have attracted much attention because it enables us to build 3D parts with complicated geometry easily and control material properties significantly via the control of microstructures. In the powderbed fusion(PBF)type AM process, 3D parts are fabricated by repeating a process of melting and solidifying metal powders by laser or electron beams. In general, the solidification microstructures can be predicted from solidification conditions defined by the combination of temperature gradient G and solidification rate R on the basis of columnar-equiaxed transition(CET)theory proposed by Hunt [Mater. Sci. Eng. 65, 75(1984)]. However, it is unclear whether the CET theory can be applied to the PBF type AM process because of the high G and R, even for general 316L stainless steel. In this study, to reveal relationships between microstructures and solidification conditions, we have analyzed solidification microstructures of 316L steel induced by electronbeam irradiation and evaluated solidification conditions at the solid/liquid interface using a computational thermal-fluid dynamics (CtFD)method. It was found that equiaxed grains were often formed under high G conditions contrary to the CET theory. CtFD simulation revealed that there is a fluid flow up to a velocity of about 400 mm s-1, and suggested that equiaxed grains are formed owing to the effect of fragmentations and migrations of dendrites.

Keywords

Additive Manufacturing, 316L Stainless Steel, Powder Bed Fusion, Electron Beam Melting, Computational Thermal
Fluid Dynamics Simulation

Fig. 1 Width, height, and height differences calculated from laser microscope analysis of melt tracks formed by scanning electron beam. Fig. 2(a)Scanning electron microscope(SEM)image and(b) corresponding electron back-scattering diffraction(EBSD) IPF-map taken from the electron-beam irradiated region in P900-V100 sample. Fig. 3 Average grain size and their aspect ratio calculated from EBSD IPF-map taken from the electron-beam irradiated region.
Fig. 1 Width, height, and height differences calculated from laser microscope analysis of melt tracks formed by scanning electron beam. Fig. 2(a)Scanning electron microscope(SEM)image and(b) corresponding electron back-scattering diffraction(EBSD) IPF-map taken from the electron-beam irradiated region in P900-V100 sample. Fig. 3 Average grain size and their aspect ratio calculated from EBSD IPF-map taken from the electron-beam irradiated region.
Fig. 4 Comparison of experimental SEM image and computational thermal fluid dynamics(CtFD)simulated melt pool with a beam diameter of 700 μm and absorption rates of(a)0.3,(b)0.5, and (c)0.7. Electron beam power and scan speed are 900 W and 100 mm s-1, respectively.
Fig. 4 Comparison of experimental SEM image and computational thermal fluid dynamics(CtFD)simulated melt pool with a beam diameter of 700 μm and absorption rates of(a)0.3,(b)0.5, and (c)0.7. Electron beam power and scan speed are 900 W and 100 mm s-1, respectively.
Fig. 5 Comparison of experimental SEM image and CtFD simulated melt pool with beam diameters of(a)700 μm,(b)1000 μm, and(c)1300 μm and an absorption rate of 0.3. Electron beam power and scan speed are 900 W and 100 mm s-1, respectively
Fig. 5 Comparison of experimental SEM image and CtFD simulated melt pool with beam diameters of(a)700 μm,(b)1000 μm, and(c)1300 μm and an absorption rate of 0.3. Electron beam power and scan speed are 900 W and 100 mm s-1, respectively
Fig. 6 Depth of melt tracks calculated from experimental SEM image and CtFD simulation results.
Fig. 6 Depth of melt tracks calculated from experimental SEM image and CtFD simulation results.
Fig. 7 G-R plots of 316L steel colored by(a)aspect ratio of crystalline grains and(b)fluid velocity.
Fig. 7 G-R plots of 316L steel colored by(a)aspect ratio of crystalline grains and(b)fluid velocity.
Fig. 8 Comparison of solidification microstructure(EBSD IPF-map)of melt region formed by scanning electron beam and corresponding snap shot of CtFD simulation colored by fluid velocity
Fig. 8 Comparison of solidification microstructure(EBSD IPF-map)of melt region formed by scanning electron beam and corresponding snap shot of CtFD simulation colored by fluid velocity

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Laser powder bed fusion of 17-4 PH stainless steel: a comparative study on the effect of heat treatment on the microstructure evolution and mechanical properties

17-4 PH 스테인리스강의 레이저 분말 베드 융합: 열처리가 미세조직의 진화 및 기계적 특성에 미치는 영향에 대한 비교 연구

panelS.Saboonia, A.Chaboka, S.Fenga,e, H.Blaauwb, T.C.Pijperb,c, H.J.Yangd, Y.T.Peia
aDepartment of Advanced Production Engineering, Engineering and Technology Institute Groningen, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
bPhilips Personal Care, Oliemolenstraat 5, 9203 ZN, Drachten, The Netherlands
cInnovation Cluster Drachten, Nipkowlaan 5, 9207 JA, Drachten, The Netherlands
dShi-changxu Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, P. R. China
eSchool of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, P.R. China

Abstract

17-4 PH (precipitation hardening) stainless steel is commonly used for the fabrication of complicated molds with conformal cooling channels using laser powder bed fusion process (L-PBF). However, their microstructure in the as-printed condition varies notably with the chemical composition of the feedstock powder, resulting in different age-hardening behavior. In the present investigation, 17-4 PH stainless steel components were fabricated by L-PBF from two different feedstock powders, and subsequently subjected to different combinations of post-process heat treatments. It was observed that the microstructure in as-printed conditions could be almost fully martensitic or ferritic, depending on the ratio of Creq/Nieq of the feedstock powder. Aging treatment at 480 °C improved the yield and ultimate tensile strengths of the as-printed components. However, specimens with martensitic structures exhibited accelerated age-hardening response compared with the ferritic specimens due to the higher lattice distortion and dislocation accumulation, resulting in the “dislocation pipe diffusion mechanism”. It was also found that the martensitic structures were highly susceptible to the formation of reverted austenite during direct aging treatment, where 19.5% of austenite phase appeared in the microstructure after 15 h of direct aging. Higher fractions of reverted austenite activates the transformation induced plasticity and improves the ductility of heat treated specimens. The results of the present study can be used to tailor the microstructure of the L-PBF printed 17-4 PH stainless steel by post-process heat treatments to achieve a good combination of mechanical properties.

17-4 PH(석출 경화) 스테인리스강은 레이저 분말 베드 융합 공정(L-PBF)을 사용하여 등각 냉각 채널이 있는 복잡한 금형 제작에 일반적으로 사용됩니다. 그러나 인쇄된 상태의 미세 구조는 공급원료 분말의 화학적 조성에 따라 크게 달라지므로 시효 경화 거동이 다릅니다.

현재 조사에서 17-4 PH 스테인리스강 구성요소는 L-PBF에 의해 두 가지 다른 공급원료 분말로 제조되었으며, 이후에 다양한 조합의 후처리 열처리를 거쳤습니다. 인쇄된 상태의 미세구조는 공급원료 분말의 Creq/Nieq 비율에 따라 거의 완전히 마르텐사이트 또는 페라이트인 것으로 관찰되었습니다.

480 °C에서 노화 처리는 인쇄된 구성 요소의 수율과 극한 인장 강도를 개선했습니다. 그러나 마텐자이트 구조의 시편은 격자 변형 및 전위 축적이 높아 페라이트 시편에 비해 시효 경화 반응이 가속화되어 “전위 파이프 확산 메커니즘”이 발생합니다.

또한 마르텐사이트 구조는 직접 시효 처리 중에 복귀된 오스테나이트의 형성에 매우 민감한 것으로 밝혀졌으며, 여기서 15시간의 직접 시효 후 미세 조직에 19.5%의 오스테나이트 상이 나타났습니다.

복귀된 오스테나이트의 비율이 높을수록 변형 유도 가소성이 활성화되고 열처리된 시편의 연성이 향상됩니다. 본 연구의 결과는 기계적 특성의 우수한 조합을 달성하기 위해 후처리 열처리를 통해 L-PBF로 인쇄된 17-4 PH 스테인리스강의 미세 구조를 조정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

Keywords

Laser powder bed fusion17-4 PH stainless steelPost-process heat treatmentAge hardeningReverted austenite

Fig. 1. Schematic of (a) geometry of the simulation model, (b) A-A cross-section presenting the locations of point probes for recording temperature history (unit: µm).
Fig. 1. Schematic of (a) geometry of the simulation model, (b) A-A cross-section presenting the locations of point probes for recording temperature history (unit: µm).
Fig. 2. Optical (a, b) and TEM (c) micrographs of the wrought 17-4 PH stainless steel.
Fig. 2. Optical (a, b) and TEM (c) micrographs of the wrought 17-4 PH stainless steel.
Fig. 3. EBSD micrographs of the as-printed 17-4 PH steel fabricated with “powder A” (a, b) and “powder B” (c, d) on two different cross sections: (a, c) perpendicular to the building direction, and (b, d) parallel to the building direction.
Fig. 3. EBSD micrographs of the as-printed 17-4 PH steel fabricated with “powder A” (a, b) and “powder B” (c, d) on two different cross sections: (a, c) perpendicular to the building direction, and (b, d) parallel to the building direction.
Fig. 4. Microstructure of the as-printed 17-4 PH stainless steel fabricated with “powder A” (a) and “powder B” (b).
Fig. 4. Microstructure of the as-printed 17-4 PH stainless steel fabricated with “powder A” (a) and “powder B” (b).
Fig. 5. Simulated temperature history of the probes located at the cross section of the L-PBF 17-4 PH steel sample.
Fig. 5. Simulated temperature history of the probes located at the cross section of the L-PBF 17-4 PH steel sample.
Fig. 6. Dependency of the volume fraction of delta ferrite in the final microstructure of L-PBF printed 17-4 PH steel as a function of Creq/Nieq.
Fig. 6. Dependency of the volume fraction of delta ferrite in the final microstructure of L-PBF printed 17-4 PH steel as a function of Creq/Nieq.
Fig. 7. IQ + IPF (left column), parent austenite grain maps (middle column) and phase maps (right column, green color = martensite, red color = austenite) of the post-process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel: (a-c) direct aged, (d-f) HIP + aging, (g-i) SA + Aging, and (j-l) HIP + SA + aging (all sample were printed with “powder A”).
Fig. 7. IQ + IPF (left column), parent austenite grain maps (middle column) and phase maps (right column, green color = martensite, red color = austenite) of the post-process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel: (a-c) direct aged, (d-f) HIP + aging, (g-i) SA + Aging, and (j-l) HIP + SA + aging (all sample were printed with “powder A”).
Fig. 8. TEM micrographs of the post process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel: (a) direct aging and (b) HIP + aging (printed with “powder A”).
Fig. 8. TEM micrographs of the post process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel: (a) direct aging and (b) HIP + aging (printed with “powder A”).
Fig. 9. XRD patterns of the post-process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel printed with “powder A”.
Fig. 9. XRD patterns of the post-process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel printed with “powder A”.
Fig. 10. (a) Volume fraction of reverted austenite as a function of aging time for “direct aging” condition, (b) phase map (green color = martensite, red color = austenite) of the 15 h direct aged specimen printed with “powder A”.
Fig. 10. (a) Volume fraction of reverted austenite as a function of aging time for “direct aging” condition, (b) phase map (green color = martensite, red color = austenite) of the 15 h direct aged specimen printed with “powder A”.
Fig. 11. Microhardness variations of the “direct aged” specimens as a function of aging time at 480 °C.
Fig. 11. Microhardness variations of the “direct aged” specimens as a function of aging time at 480 °C.
Fig. 12. Kernel average misorientation graphs of the as-printed 17-4 PH steel with (a) martensitic structure (printed with “powder A”) and (b) ferritic structure (printed with “powder b”).
Fig. 12. Kernel average misorientation graphs of the as-printed 17-4 PH steel with (a) martensitic structure (printed with “powder A”) and (b) ferritic structure (printed with “powder b”).
Fig. 13. Typical stress-strain curves (a) along with the yield and ultimate tensile strengths (b) and elongation (c) of the as-printed and post-process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel (all sample are fabricated with “powder A”).
Fig. 13. Typical stress-strain curves (a) along with the yield and ultimate tensile strengths (b) and elongation (c) of the as-printed and post-process heat treated 17-4 PH stainless steel (all sample are fabricated with “powder A”).
Fig. 14. (a) IQ + IPF and (b) phase map (green color = martensite, red color = austenite) of the “direct aged” specimen after tensile test at a location nearby the rupture point (tension direction from left to right).
Fig. 14. (a) IQ + IPF and (b) phase map (green color = martensite, red color = austenite) of the “direct aged” specimen after tensile test at a location nearby the rupture point (tension direction from left to right).

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electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig1

A survey of electromagnetic metal casting computation designs, present approaches, future possibilities, and practical issues

The European Physical Journal Plus volume 136, Article number: 704 (2021) Cite this article

Abstract

Electromagnetic metal casting (EMC) is a casting technique that uses electromagnetic energy to heat metal powders. It is a faster, cleaner, and less time-consuming operation. Solid metals create issues in electromagnetics since they reflect the electromagnetic radiation rather than consume it—electromagnetic energy processing results in sounded pieces with higher-ranking material properties and a more excellent microstructure solution. For the physical production of the electromagnetic casting process, knowledge of electromagnetic material interaction is critical. Even where the heated material is an excellent electromagnetic absorber, the total heating quality is sometimes insufficient. Numerical modelling works on finding the proper coupled effects between properties to bring out the most effective operation. The main parameters influencing the quality of output of the EMC process are: power dissipated per unit volume into the material, penetration depth of electromagnetics, complex magnetic permeability and complex dielectric permittivity. The contact mechanism and interference pattern also, in turn, determines the quality of the process. Only a few parameters, such as the environment’s temperature, the interference pattern, and the rate of metal solidification, can be controlled by AI models. Neural networks are used to achieve exact outcomes by stimulating the neurons in the human brain. Additive manufacturing (AM) is used to design mold and cores for metal casting. The models outperformed the traditional DFA optimization approach, which is susceptible to local minima. The system works only offline, so real-time analysis and corrections are not yet possible.

Korea Abstract

전자기 금속 주조 (EMC)는 전자기 에너지를 사용하여 금속 분말을 가열하는 주조 기술입니다. 더 빠르고 깨끗하며 시간이 덜 소요되는 작업입니다.

고체 금속은 전자기 복사를 소비하는 대신 반사하기 때문에 전자기학에서 문제를 일으킵니다. 전자기 에너지 처리는 더 높은 등급의 재료 특성과 더 우수한 미세 구조 솔루션을 가진 사운드 조각을 만듭니다.

전자기 주조 공정의 물리적 생산을 위해서는 전자기 물질 상호 작용에 대한 지식이 중요합니다. 가열된 물질이 우수한 전자기 흡수재인 경우에도 전체 가열 품질이 때때로 불충분합니다. 수치 모델링은 가장 효과적인 작업을 이끌어 내기 위해 속성 간의 적절한 결합 효과를 찾는데 사용됩니다.

EMC 공정의 출력 품질에 영향을 미치는 주요 매개 변수는 단위 부피당 재료로 분산되는 전력, 전자기의 침투 깊이, 복합 자기 투과성 및 복합 유전율입니다. 접촉 메커니즘과 간섭 패턴 또한 공정의 품질을 결정합니다. 환경 온도, 간섭 패턴 및 금속 응고 속도와 같은 몇 가지 매개 변수 만 AI 모델로 제어 할 수 있습니다.

신경망은 인간 뇌의 뉴런을 자극하여 정확한 결과를 얻기 위해 사용됩니다. 적층 제조 (AM)는 금속 주조용 몰드 및 코어를 설계하는 데 사용됩니다. 모델은 로컬 최소값에 영향을 받기 쉬운 기존 DFA 최적화 접근 방식을 능가했습니다. 이 시스템은 오프라인에서만 작동하므로 실시간 분석 및 수정은 아직 불가능합니다.

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig1
electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig1
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electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig2
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electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig3
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Fig. 2 Temperature distributions of oil pans (Cycling)

내열마그네슘 합금을 이용한 자동차용 오일팬의 다이캐스팅 공정 연구

A Study on Die Casting Process of the Automobile Oil Pan Using the Heat Resistant Magnesium Alloy

한국자동차공학회논문집 = Transactions of the Korean Society of Automotive Engineersv.17 no.3 = no.99 , 2009년, pp.45 – 53  신현우 (두원공과대학 메카트로닉스과 ) ;  정연준 ( 현대자동차(주) ) ;  강승구 ( 인지AMT(주))

Abstract

Die casting process of Mg alloys for high temperature applications was studied to produce an engine oil pan. The aim of this paper is to evaluate die casting processes of the Aluminium oil pan and in parallel to apply new Mg alloy for die casting the oil pan. Temperature distributions of the die and flow pattern of the alloys in cavity were simulated to diecast a new Mg alloy by the flow simulation software. Dies have to be modified according to material characteristics because melting temperature and heat capacity are different. We changed the shape and position of runner, gate, vent hole and overflow by the simulation results. After several trial and error, oil pans of AE44 and MRI153M Mg alloys are produced successfully without defect. Sleeve filling ratio, cavity filling time and shot speed of die casting machine are important parameter to minimize the defect for die casting Magnesium alloy.

Keywords: 오일팬 , 내열마그네슘합금, 알루미늄 합금,  다이캐스팅, 유동해석

서론

크랭크케이스의 하부에 부착되는 오일팬은 오일 펌프에 의해 펌핑된 오일이 윤활작용을 마치고 다시 모이는 부품이다. 오일의 온도에 의해 가열되므로 일반적으로 사용되는 마그네슘 합금인 AZ나 AM계열의 합금은 사용이 불가하며 내열소재의 적용이 불가피하다.

현재 ADC12종 알루미늄 오일팬 둥이 적용되고 있으며, 이를 마그네슘으로 대체할 경우 밀도가 알루미늄 2.8g/cm3‘, 마그네슘 1.8g/cm3‘이므로 약 35%의 경량화가 가능하다고 단순하게 말할 수 있다.

그러나 탄성계수는 알루미늄 73GPa이 고 마그네슘 45GPa이므로 외부 하중을 지지하고 있는 부품의 경우는 단순한 재질의 변경만으로는 알루미늄과 같은 정도의 강성을 나타내지 못하므로 형상의 변경 등을 통한 설계 최적화가 요구된다.

마그네슘은 현재까지 개발된 여러 가지 구조용 합금들 중에서 최소의 밀도를 가지고 있으며 동시에 우수한 비강도 및 비탄성 계수를 가지고 있다.1.2)

그러나 이러한 우수한 특성을 가지는 마그네슘 합금은 경쟁 재료에 비해 절대 강도 및 인성이 낮으며 고온에서 인장 강도가 급격히 감소하고 내부식 성능이 떨어지는 등의 문제점이 있다. 현재까지 자동차 부품 중 마그네슘 합금은 Cylinder head cover, Steering wheel, Instrument panel, Seat frame 등 비교적 내열성이 요구되지 않는 부분에만 한정적으로 적용되고 있다.
자동차 산업에서 좀 더 많은 부품에 마그네슘 합금을 적용하기 위해서는 내열성을 향상 시키고 고온강도를 향상시키기 위한 새로운 합금의 개발이 이루어져야 한다. 최근 마그네슘 합금개발에 대한 연구동향은 비교적 저가인 원소를 값비싼 원소가 첨가된 합금계에 부분적으로 첨가하거나 대체함으로써 비슷한 내열 특성을 가지는 합금을 개발하고,34) 이를 자동차 산업이나 전자 산업의 내열 부품 적용으로 확대하기 위하여 진행되고 있다. 현재 마그네슘 내열 부품은 선진국에서 자동차 부품으로 개발되고 있으나6-8)

국내에서는 아직 자동차 부품에 폭 넓게 적용되고 있지 않다. 그러므로 국내 자동차 산업이 치열한 국제 시장에서 생존하기 위해서는 마그네슘 합금의 내열 부품 제조기술을 조기에 개발하여 선진국보다 기술적, 경제적 우위를 확보하는 것이 절실히 요구된다.

본 연구에서는 내열 마그네슘합금을 이용하여 알루미늄 오일팬을 대체할 수 있는 새로운 오일팬의 개발올 위한 적절한 다이캐스팅 공정방안을 도출하고자 한다.

<중략>…….

Fig. 1 Current Al oil pan and cooling lines
Fig. 1 Current Al oil pan and cooling lines
Fig. 2 Temperature distributions of oil pans (Cycling)
Fig. 2 Temperature distributions of oil pans (Cycling)
Fig. 3 Developed Mg oil pan and cooling lines
Fig. 3 Developed Mg oil pan and cooling lines
Fig. 4 Temperature distributions of Mg oil pan for new cooling lines (Cycling)
Fig. 4 Temperature distributions of Mg oil pan for new cooling lines (Cycling)
Fig. 5 Filling pattern of current Al oil pan
Fig. 5 Filling pattern of current Al oil pan
Fig. 11 Temperature distribution at t-=1.825sec
Fig. 11 Temperature distribution at t-=1.825sec

<중략>…….

결론

오일팬은 엔진 내부에서 순환되어 돌아오는 오일의 열을 외부로 발산하는 냉각기능 및 엔진으로부터 발생하는 소음이 외부로 전달되지 않도록 소음을 차단하는 역할을 수행하는 매우 중요한 부품 중의 하나이다. 본 연구에서는 현재 개발 중에 있는 새로운 내열 마그네슘 합금을 이용하여 현재 사용하고 있는 알루미늄 오일팬을 대체할 마그네슘 오일팬을 개발하고 시험 생산하였으며 다음과 같은 결론을 얻었다.

  1. 알루미늄 합금과 마그네슘 합금의 단위 부피당 열 용량은 각각 3.07x10J/m/K, 2.38x10J/m/K로서 동일 주조 조건 시 응고 속도 차이가 제품 성형에 영향을 미칠 것으로 예상되었으며, 주조해석 및 제품분석을 통해 확인하였다. 따라서 주조 조건에 가장 큰 영향을 미치는 것으로 확인된 용탕, 금형온도, 주조속도 등을 변경하여 최적 주조공정 조건을 확립하였다.
  2. 제품 및 시험편 성형에 영향을 미치는 것으로 확인된 런너의 곡률 반경을 증대시키고 게이트의 갯수 및 오버플로우 위치와 형상을 조절함으로서 제품 및 시험편의 용탕 흐름을 원활하게 조절 할 수 있었다.
  3. MRI153M 합금은 AE44 합금에 비해 응고 시작점에서 완료점까지의 응고시간이 길어 응고 완료 후, 내부 수축기포가 보다 많이 관찰되었다.
    따라서 MRI153M 합금 주조시 슬리브 충진율, 게이트 통과속도, 충진시간 등을 달리하여 최적 주조 품을 생산할 수 있었다.

Reference

  1. W. Sebastian, K. Droder and S. Schumann, Properties and Processing of Magnesium Wrought Products for Automotive Applications; Conference Paper at Magnesium Alloys and Their Applications,Munich, Germany, 2000 
  2. J. Hwang and D. Kang, “FE Analysis on the press forging of AZ31 Magnesium alloys,” Transactions ofKSAE, Vo1.14, No.1, pp.86-91, 2006  원문보기 
  3. S. Koike, K. Washizu, S. Tanaka, K. Kikawa and T. Baba, “Development of Lightweight Oil Pans Made of a Heat-Resistant Magnesium Alloy for Hybrid Engines,” SAE 2000-01-1117, 2000 
  4. D.M. Kim, H.S. Kim and S.I. Park, “Magnesium for Automotive Application,” Journal ofKSAE, Vo1.18, No.5, pp.53-67, 1996 
  5. P. Lyon, J. F. King and K. Nuttal, “A New Magnesium HPDC Alloy for Elevated Temperature Use,” Proceedings of the 3rd International Magnesium Conference, ed. G. W. Lorimer, Manchester, UK, pp.1 0-12, 1996 
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  8. M.C. Kang and K.Y. Sohn, “The Trend and Prospects of Magnesium Alloys Consumption for Automotive Parts in Europe,” Proceedings of KSAE Autumn Conference, pp.1569-l576, 2003 
Weld bead surface images showing the slag formation location for (a) wire 1 and (b) wire 2.

The effect of alloying elements of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) wire on weld pool flow and slag formation location in cold metal transfer (CMT)

가스 금속 아크 용접 (GMAW) 와이어의 합금 원소가 CMT (Cold Metal Transfer)에서 용접 풀 흐름 및 슬래그 형성 위치에 미치는 영향

Md. R. U. Ahsan1,3, Muralimohan. Cheepu2, Yeong-Do Park* 2,3
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, International University of Business, Agriculture and Technology,
Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh.
r.ahsan06me@gmail.com
2Department of Advanced Materials and Industrial Management Engineering, Dong-Eui University, Busan
47340, Republic of Korea.
muralicheepu@gmail.com
3Department of Advanced Materials Engineering, Dong-Eui University, B

Abstract

용접시 표면 장력 구동 흐름 또는 마랑고니 흐름은 용접 비드 모양을 제어하는데 중요한 역할을 하므로 용접 접합 품질에 영향을 미칩니다. 용해된 금속의 표면 장력은 보통 음의 온도 계수를 가지므로 용접 풀이 중심에서 토우 방향으로 흐르게 됩니다.

표면 장력의 이 온도 계수는 황(S), 산소(O), 셀레늄(Se) 및 텔루륨(Te)과 같은 표면 활성 요소가 있는 경우 양의 계수로 변경할 수 있습니다. 소모품에 존재하는 탈산화 원소의 양이 용접 금속에 존재하는 산소량을 결정합니다. 탈산화제 양이 적으면 용접 금속에 산소 농도가 높아집니다.

적절한 양의 산소가 있으면 용융지에 표면 장력 구배의 양의 온도 계수가 발생할 수 있습니다. 이 경우 용접 풀은 토우에서 중앙 방향으로 흐릅니다. 그 결과, 아크와 용융지에 있는 화농성 반응의 경우, 합금 요소의 다양한 산화물이 슬래그(slag)라고 합니다. 슬래그는 용융지 표면에 떠서 용융지 흐름 패턴에 따라 누적됩니다.

그 결과, 슬래그는 용융지 흐름 패턴에 따라 용접 비드 중심 또는 토우 중심을 따라 형성됩니다. 슬래그는 용접 비드의 외관과 도장 접착력을 저하시키므로 제거해야 합니다. 쉽게 분리할 수 있기 때문에 용접 비드 중심 부근에서 슬래그가 형성되는 것이 좋습니다.

용접 풀의 현장 고속 비디오 촬영, 용접 금속 화학 성분 분석, 소모품 합금 요소가 용접 풀 흐름 패턴 및 슬래그 형성 위치에 미치는 영향이 공개되어 CMT-GMAW의 생산성 향상을 위해 용접 소모품 선택을 용이하게 할 수 있습니다.

The surface tension driven flow or Marangoni flow in welding plays an important role in governing weld bead shape hence affecting the weld joint quality. The surface tension of molten metal usually has a negative temperature coefficient causing the weld pool to flow from the center towards the toe.

This temperature coefficient of the surface tension can be altered to be a positive one in the presence of surface-active elements like sulfur (S), oxygen (O), selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te). The amount of deoxidizing elements present in the consumables governs the amount of oxygen present in the weld metal. The presence of a lower amount of deoxidizers results in higher concentration of oxygen in the weld metal.

The presence of adequate amount of oxygen can result in a positive temperature coefficient of surface tension gradient in the weld pool. In such situation, the weld pool flows from the toe towards the direction of the center. As a result, of pyrometallurgical reactions in the arc and the weld pool various oxides of the alloying elements are former which are referred as slag.

The slags float on the weld pool surface and accumulate following the weld pool flow pattern. As a result, slags form either along the center of the weld bead or the toe depending on the weld pool flow pattern. The slags need to be removed as they degrade the weld bead appearance and paint adhesiveness.

Due to easy detachability, slag formation near the center of the weld bead is desired. From in-situ high-speed videography of weld pool, weld metal chemical composition analysis, the effect of consumables alloying elements on weld pool flow pattern and slag formation location are disclosed, which can facilitate the selection of the welding consumables for better productivity in CMT-GMAW.

Weld bead surface images showing the slag formation location for (a) wire 1 and (b) wire 2.
Weld bead surface images showing the slag formation location for (a) wire 1 and (b) wire 2.
Fig. 2: High-speed movie frames and schematic showing the weld pool flow pattern and the slag formation location for wire 1 and wire 2.
Fig. 2: High-speed movie frames and schematic showing the weld pool flow pattern and the slag formation location for wire 1 and wire 2.
Fig. 3: Quantitative analysis data on slag formation for different wire.
Fig. 3: Quantitative analysis data on slag formation for different wire.

References

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Fig. 6: Proposed Pattern Layout

Casting Defect Analysis on Caliper Bracket using Mold flow Simulation

금형 흐름 시뮬레이션을 사용한 캘리퍼 브래킷의 주조 결함 분석

Abstract

이 작업에서는 컴퓨터 보조 주조 시뮬레이션 기술을 사용하여 Green sand 주조의 모래, 기계 및 설계 관련 결함을 분석합니다. 자동차 브레이크 드럼에 사용되는 캘리퍼 브래킷이 분석을 위해 선택됩니다.

캘리퍼 브래킷을 제조하는 동안 수축, 블로우 홀, 몰드 크러쉬 및 샌드 드롭과 같은 결함이 대량 생산에서 발생합니다. 여기에서는 주조 결함 식별, 분석 및 수정에 대한 3 단계 접근 방식을 제시합니다.

모래 관련 결함에서 테스트 매개 변수 및 모래 속성이 수집된 다음 해당 속성을 저널 및 기타 표준과 비교합니다. 기계 관련 주조 결함에서 기계 유지 보수를 관찰 한 다음 유지 보수 일정을 변경하여 브레이크 다운 시간과 유지 보수 비용을 줄입니다.

패턴 관련에서는 “Autodesk 금형 흐름 시뮬레이션 소프트웨어”를 사용하여 패턴에서 결함이 있는 영역을 찾은 다음 패턴을 재 설계하여 결함을 줄입니다.

Keywords: Casting defects, Mold flow, Simulation, Caliper Bracket

Background

이 작업에서 컴퓨터 보조 주조 시뮬레이션 기술을 사용하여 모래, 기계 및 설계 관련 결함을 분석하는 것은 원하는 부품 형상을 제조하는 직접적인 방법 중 하나입니다. 주조 결함으로 인해 단위 비용이 증가하고 작업 현장 직원의 사기가 낮아집니다. Vijaya Ramnath (2014)는 제조 리드 타임을 대폭 단축하는 게이팅 시스템의 최적화를 다루었습니다.

Prabhakara Rao et al (2011)은 ProCAST 소프트웨어의 도움으로 주조 응고 시뮬레이션 프로세스에 대해 논의했습니다. Kermanpur et al (2010)은 FLOW-3D 시뮬레이션 소프트웨어를 사용하여 두 자동차 주조 부품의 다중 캐비티 주조 금형에서 금속 흐름 및 응고 거동을 연구하고 시뮬레이션 모델을 검증했습니다.

Nandi 등 (2914)은 기존 방법과 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션 기술을 기반으로 다양한 크기의 피더를 사용하는 알루미늄 합금 (LM6)의 응고 거동을 조사하기 위해 플레이트 주조를 연구했습니다. Gajbhiye (2014)는 허용치, 게이팅 시스템 및 피더가있는 패턴에 대해 얻은 설계 치수에 따라 AutoCAST-X 환경에서 응고 시뮬레이션 분석을 수행했습니다. Masoumi (2005)는 금형 충진의 흐름 패턴을 실험적으로 관찰하기 위해 직접 관찰을 사용했습니다.

Dabade (2013)는 실험 설계법 (Taguchi 법)과 컴퓨터 지원 주조 시뮬레이션 기법을 결합한 새로운 주조 결함 분석 방법을 제안하고 연구하여 모래, 몰딩, 녹색 모래 주조의 방법, 충전 및 응고. Rajesh Rajkolhe (2014)와 Vipul Vasava (2013)는 주조 시뮬레이션 기술이 주조 결함 문제 해결 및 방법 최적화를 위한 강력한 도구가 된다고 발표했습니다.

Guharaja (2006)는 가능한 가장 낮은 비용으로 매개 변수 설계의 Taguchis 방법으로 품질을 개선함으로써이를 입증했습니다. 검토를 기반으로이 작업에서는 컴퓨터 지원 주조 시뮬레이션 기술을 사용하여 그린 샌드 주조의 설계 관련 결함을 분석합니다. 주조. 자동차 브레이크 드럼에 사용되는 캘리퍼 브래킷이 분석을 위해 선택됩니다.

캘리퍼 브래킷을 제조하는 동안 수축, 블로우 홀, 몰드 크러쉬 및 샌드 드롭과 같은 결함이 대량 생산에서 발생합니다. 여기에서는 주조 결함 식별, 분석 및 수정에 대한 3 단계 접근 방식을 제시합니다. 모래 관련 결함에서 테스트 매개 변수 및 모래 속성이 수집된 다음 해당 속성을 저널 및 기타 표준과 비교합니다.

기계 관련 주조 결함에서 기계 유지 보수를 관찰 한 다음 유지 보수 일정을 변경하여 브레이크 다운 시간과 유지 보수 비용을 줄입니다. 패턴 관련에서는 “Autodesk 금형 흐름 시뮬레이션 소프트웨어”를 사용하여 패턴의 결함 영역을 찾은 다음 패턴의 재 설계를 수행하여 결함을 줄입니다.

본문 내용 생략 : 문서 하단부의 원문보기를 참고하시기 바랍니다.

Fig. 5: Existing Pattern Layout
Fig. 5: Existing Pattern Layout
Fig. 6: Proposed Pattern Layout
Fig. 6: Proposed Pattern Layout

Conclusions

이 작업은 산업 부품의 결함을 줄이기 위해 시뮬레이션 기술을 사용하여 주조 결함을 식별하는 것을 목표로합니다. 주조 부품의 품질을 향상시키기 위해 여러 가지 장점과 지능형 도구 형태를 제공합니다. 이것은 주조의 품질과 수율을 향상시키는 데 확실히 도움이 될 것입니다. 이러한 기술적 인 방법으로 주조 결함을 검사하면 주조 산업에서 불량품 관리 조건을 경고 할 수 있습니다. 이 프로젝트에서는 자동차 브레이크 드럼에 사용되는 캘리퍼 브래킷을 분석을 위해 선택합니다. 캘리퍼 브라켓을 제작하는 동안 양산시 수축, 블로우 홀, 몰드 크러쉬, 샌드 드롭과 같은 결함이 발생합니다. 더 나은 품질의 주조를 얻기 위해 다양한 매개 변수를 찾기 위해 많은 테스트가 수행되었습니다. 모래 매개 변수를 적절하게 선택함으로써 주조 결함을 성공적으로 줄였습니다. 거부가 통제 될 때까지 모래 혼합 공정 매개 변수의 변화를 위해 지속적으로 노력할 수 있습니다. 그런 다음 적절한 유지 보수 정책을 제공하여 CASTING 기계의 성능 수준을 높였습니다. 이로 인해 CASTING 기계의 OEE가 향상되었습니다. 마지막으로 세 가지 이상의 수정 사항이있는 새로운 패턴 디자인이 제안됩니다. 이 새로운 패턴 디자인은 주조 결함을 성공적으로 줄였습니다. 더 나은 품질을 위해 주조 결함에 근거한 주조품의 거부를 가능한 한 줄여야합니다.
분석 결과는 제품 품질의 향상을 보여줍니다. 마지막으로 캐스팅 거부율이 감소합니다.

Fig. 9 (a) Velocity field, keyhole profile, and breakage of the keyhole to form bubble and (b) 2D temperature and velocity field along the longitudinal section

A Numerical Study on the Keyhole Formation During Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process

Keyhole에 대한 수치적 연구 : 레이저 분말 중 형성 베드 퓨전 공정

Subin Shrestha1
J.B. Speed School of Engineering,University of Louisville,Louisville, KY 40292
e-mail: subin.shrestha@louisville.edu

Y. Kevin Chou
J.B. Speed School of Engineering,University of Louisville,Louisville, KY 40292
e-mail: kevin.chou@louisville.edu

LPBF (Laser Powder Bed fusion) 공정 중 용융 풀의 동적 현상은 복잡하고 공정 매개 변수에 민감합니다. 에너지 밀도 입력이 특정 임계 값을 초과하면 키홀이라고 하는 거대한 증기 함몰이 형성 될 수 있습니다.

이 연구는 수치 분석을 통해 LPBF 과정에서 키홀 거동 및 관련 기공 형성을 이해하는 데 중점을 둡니다. 이를 위해 이산 분말 입자가 있는 열 유동 모델이 개발되었습니다.

이산 요소 방법 (DEM)에서 얻은 분말 분포는 계산 영역에 통합되어 FLOW-3D를 사용하는 3D 프로세스 물리학 모델을 개발합니다.

전도 모드 중 용융 풀 형성과 용융의 키홀 모드가 식별되고 설명되었습니다. 높은 에너지 밀도는 증기 기둥의 형성으로 이어지고 결과적으로 레이저 스캔 트랙 아래에 구멍이 생깁니다.

또한 다양한 레이저 출력과 스캔 속도로 인한 Keyhole 모양을 조사합니다. 수치 결과는 동일한 에너지 밀도에서도 레이저 출력이 증가함에 따라 Keyhole크기가 증가 함을 나타냅니다. Keyhole은 더 높은 출력에서 ​​안정되어 레이저 스캔 중 Keyhole 발생을 줄일 수 있습니다.

The dynamic phenomenon of a melt pool during the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process is complex and sensitive to process parameters. As the energy density input exceeds a certain threshold, a huge vapor depression may form, known as the keyhole. This study focuses on understanding the keyhole behavior and related pore formation during the LPBF process through numerical analysis. For this purpose, a thermo-fluid model with discrete powder particles is developed. The powder distribution, obtained from a discrete element method (DEM), is incorporated into the computational domain to develop a 3D process physics model using flow-3d. The melt pool formation during the conduction mode and the keyhole mode of melting has been discerned and explained. The high energy density leads to the formation of a vapor column and consequently pores under the laser scan track. Further, the keyhole shape resulted from different laser powers and scan speeds is investigated. The numerical results indicated that the keyhole size increases with the increase in the laser power even with the same energy density. The keyhole becomes stable at a higher power, which may reduce the occurrence of pores during laser scanning.

Keywords: additive manufacturing, keyhole, laser powder bed fusion, porosity

Fig. 1 (a) Powder added to the dispenser platform and (b) powder particles settled over build plate after the recoating process
Fig. 1 (a) Powder added to the dispenser platform and (b) powder particles settled over build plate after the recoating process
Fig. 2 3D computational domain used for single-track simulation
Fig. 2 3D computational domain used for single-track simulation
Fig. 3 Temperature-dependent material properties of Ti-6Al-4V
Fig. 3 Temperature-dependent material properties of Ti-6Al-4V
Fig. 4 Powder and substrate melting during laser application
Fig. 4 Powder and substrate melting during laser application
Fig. 5 Melt region formed after complete melting and solidification
Fig. 5 Melt region formed after complete melting and solidification
Fig. 6 Melt pool boundary comparison between the experiment [25] and the simulation
Fig. 6 Melt pool boundary comparison between the experiment [25] and the simulation
Fig. 7 Equilibrium points during the formation of vapor column [27]
Fig. 7 Equilibrium points during the formation of vapor column [27]
Fig. 8 Multiple reflection vectors from the keyhole wall
Fig. 8 Multiple reflection vectors from the keyhole wall
Fig. 9 (a) Velocity field, keyhole profile, and breakage of the keyhole to form bubble and (b) 2D temperature and velocity field along the longitudinal section
Fig. 9 (a) Velocity field, keyhole profile, and breakage of the keyhole to form bubble and (b) 2D temperature and velocity field along the longitudinal section
Fig. 10 Fluid flow in the transverse direction during keyhole melting
Fig. 10 Fluid flow in the transverse direction during keyhole melting
Fig. 11 Melt pool boundary compared with the experiment [21] for 195 W laser power and 400 mm/s scan speed
Fig. 11 Melt pool boundary compared with the experiment [21] for 195 W laser power and 400 mm/s scan speed
Fig. 12 Melt region formed after complete melting and solidification
Fig. 12 Melt region formed after complete melting and solidification
Fig. 13 2D images of the pores formed at the beginning of the single track and their 3D-rendered morphology
Fig. 13 2D images of the pores formed at the beginning of the single track and their 3D-rendered morphology
Fig. 14 Pore number and volume from a different level of power with LED = 0.4 J/mm [29]
Fig. 14 Pore number and volume from a different level of power with LED = 0.4 J/mm [29]
Fig. 15 Keyhole shape at different time steps from different parameters: (a) P = 100 W, v = 250 mm/s, (b) P = 200 W, v = 500 mm/s, (c) P = 300 W, v = 750 mm/s, and (d) P = 400 W, v = 1000 mm/s
Fig. 15 Keyhole shape at different time steps from different parameters: (a) P = 100 W, v = 250 mm/s, (b) P = 200 W, v = 500 mm/s, (c) P = 300 W, v = 750 mm/s, and (d) P = 400 W, v = 1000 mm/s
Fig. 16 Intensity dependence in the relationship between vapor column and evaporation pressure [27]
Fig. 16 Intensity dependence in the relationship between vapor column and evaporation pressure [27]
Fig. 17 Temperature distribution when laser has moved 0.8 mm with P = 300 W, v = 750 mm/s and P = 400 W, v = 1000 mm/s
Fig. 17 Temperature distribution when laser has moved 0.8 mm with P = 300 W, v = 750 mm/s and P = 400 W, v = 1000 mm/s
Fig. 18 Melt region with different level of power with LED of 0.4 J/mm
Fig. 18 Melt region with different level of power with LED of 0.4 J/mm

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Simulation of EPS foam decomposition in the lost foam casting process

X.J. Liu a,∗, S.H. Bhavnani b,1, R.A. Overfelt c,2
a United States Steel Corporation, Great Lakes Works, #1 Quality Drive, Ecorse, MI 48229, United States b 213 Ross Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5341, United States c 202 Ross Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Engineering Program, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5341, United States
Received 17 April 2006; received in revised form 14 July 2006; accepted 21 August 2006

Keywords: Lost foam casting; Heat transfer coefficient; Gas pressure; VOF-FAVOR

LFC (Loss Foam Casting) 공정에서 부드러운 몰드 충진의 중요성은 오랫동안 인식되어 왔습니다. 충진 공정이 균일할수록 생산되는 주조 제품의 품질이 향상됩니다. 성공적인 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션은 금형 충전 공정에서 복잡한 메커니즘과 다양한 공정 매개 변수의 상호 작용을 더 잘 이해함으로써 새로운 주조 제품 설계의 시도 횟수를 줄이고 리드 타임을 줄이는데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

이 연구에서는 용융 알루미늄의 유체 흐름과 금속과 발포 폴리스티렌 (EPS) 폼 패턴 사이의 계면 갭에 관련된 열 전달을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 전산 유체 역학 (CFD) 모델이 개발되었습니다.

상업용 코드 FLOW-3D는 VOF (Volume of Fluid) 방법으로 용융 금속의 전면을 추적 할 수 있고 FAVOR (Fractional Area / Volume Ratios) 방법으로 복잡한 부품을 모델링 할 수 있기 때문에 사용되었습니다. 이 코드는 폼 열화 및 코팅 투과성과 관련된 기체 갭 압력을 기반으로 다양한 계면 열 전달 계수 (VHTC)의 효과를 포함하도록 수정되었습니다.

수정은 실험 연구에 대해 검증되었으며 비교는 FLOW-3D의 기본 상수 열 전달 (CHTC) 모델보다 더 나은 일치를 보여주었습니다. 금속 전면 온도는 VHTC 모델에 의해 실험적 불확실성 내에서 예측되었습니다. 몰드 충전 패턴과 1-4 초의 충전 시간 차이는 여러 형상에 대해 CHTC 모델보다 VHTC 모델에 의해 더 정확하게 포착되었습니다. 이 연구는 전통적으로 매우 경험적인 분야에서 중요한 프로세스 및 설계 변수의 효과에 대한 추가 통찰력을 제공했습니다.

지난 20 년 동안 LFC (Loss Foam Casting) 공정은 코어가 필요없는 복잡한 부품을 제조하기 위해 널리 채택되었습니다. 이는 자동차 제조업체가 현재 LFC 기술을 사용하여 광범위한 엔진 블록과 실린더 헤드를 생산하기 때문에 알루미늄 주조 산업에서 특히 그렇습니다.

기본 절차, 적용 및 장점은 [1]에서 찾을 수 있습니다. LFC 프로세스는 주로 숙련 된 실무자의 경험적 지식을 기반으로 개발되었습니다. 발포 폴리스티렌 (EPS) 발포 분해의 수치 모델링은 최근에야 설계 및 공정 변수를 최적화하는 데 유용한 통찰력을 제공 할 수있는 지점에 도달했습니다. LFC 공정에서 원하는 모양의 발포 폴리스티렌 폼 패턴을 적절한 게이팅 시스템이있는 모래 주형에 배치합니다.

폼 패턴은 용융 금속 전면이 패턴으로 진행될 때 붕괴, 용융, 기화 및 열화를 겪습니다. 전진하는 금속 전면과 후퇴하는 폼 패턴 사이의 간격 인 운동 영역은 Warner et al. [2] LFC 프로세스를 모델링합니다. 금형 충진 과정에서 분해 산물은 운동 영역에서 코팅층을 통해 모래로 빠져 나갑니다.

용융 금속과 폼 패턴 사이의 복잡한 반응은 LFC 공정의 시뮬레이션을 극도로 어렵게 만듭니다. SOLA-VOF (SOLution AlgorithmVolume of Fluid) 방법이 Hirt와 Nichols [3]에 의해 처음 공식화 되었기 때문에 빈 금형을 사용한 전통적인 모래 주조 시뮬레이션은 광범위하게 연구되었습니다.

Lost foam 주조 공정은 기존의 모래 주조와 많은 특성을 공유하기 때문에이 새로운 공정을 모델링하는 데 적용된 이론과 기술은 대부분 기존의 모래 주조를 위해 개발 된 시뮬레이션 방법에서 비롯되었습니다. 패턴 분해 속도가 금속성 헤드와 금속 전면 온도의 선형 함수라고 가정함으로써 Wang et al. [4]는 기존의 모래 주조의 기존 컴퓨터 프로그램을 기반으로 복잡한 3D 형상에서 Lost foam 주조 공정을 시뮬레이션했습니다.

Liu et al. [5]는 금속 앞쪽 속도를 예측하기 위한 간단한 1D 수학적 모델과 함께 운동 영역의 배압을 포함했습니다. Mirbagheri et al. [6]은 SOLA-VOF 기술을 기반으로 금속 전면의 자유 표면에 대한 압력 보정 방식을 사용하는 Foam 열화 모델을 개발했습니다.

Kuo et al.에 의해 유사한 배압 방식이 채택되었습니다. [7] 운동량 방정식에서이 힘의 값은 실험 결과에 따라 패턴의 충전 순서를 연구하기 위해 조정되었습니다.

이러한 시뮬레이션의 대부분은 LFC 공정의 충전 속도가 기존의 모래 주조 공정보다 훨씬 느린 것으로 성공적으로 예측합니다. 그러나 Foam 분해의 역할은 대부분 모델의 일부가 아니며 시뮬레이션을 수행하려면 실험 데이터 또는 경험적 함수가 필요합니다.

현재 연구는 일정한 열전달 계수 (CHTC)를 사용하는 상용 코드 FLOW-3D의 기본 LFC 모델을 수정하여 Foam 열화와 관련된 기체 갭 압력에 따라 다양한 열전달 계수 (VHTC)의 영향을 포함합니다. 코팅 투과성. 수정은 여러 공정 변수에 대한 실험 연구에 대해 검증되었습니다.

또한, 손실 된 폼 주조에서 가장 중요한 문제인 결함 형성은 문헌에서 인용 된 수치 작업에서 모델링되지 않았습니다. 접힘, 내부 기공 및 표면 기포와 같은 열분해 결함은 LFC 작업에서 많은 양의 스크랩을 설명합니다. FLOW-3D의 결함 예측 기능은 프로세스를 이해하고 최적화하는데 매우 중요합니다.

Fig. 7. Comparison of mold filling times for a plate pattern with three ingates: (a) measured values by thermometric technique [18]; (b) predicted filling times based on basic CHTC model with gravity effect; and (c) predicted filing times based on the VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient changing with gas pressure; (d) mold filling time at the right-and wall of the mold for the plate pattern with three ingates.
Fig. 7. Comparison of mold filling times for a plate pattern with three ingates: (a) measured values by thermometric technique [18]; (b) predicted filling times based on basic CHTC model with gravity effect; and (c) predicted filing times based on the VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient changing with gas pressure; (d) mold filling time at the right-and wall of the mold for the plate pattern with three ingates.
Fig. 10. Defects formation predicted by (a) basic CHTC model with gravity effect; (b) VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient based on both gas pressure and coating thickness; and (c) improved model for two ingates. Color represents probability for defects (blue is the lowest and red highest).
Fig. 10. Defects formation predicted by (a) basic CHTC model with gravity effect; (b) VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient based on both gas pressure and coating thickness; and (c) improved model for two ingates. Color represents probability for defects (blue is the lowest and red highest).

References

[1] S. Shivkumar, L. Wang, D. Apelian, The lost-foam casting of aluminum alloy components, JOM 42 (11) (1990) 38–44.
[2] M.H. Warner, B.A. Miller, H.E. Littleton, Pattern pyrolysis defect reduction in lost foam castings, AFS Trans. 106 (1998) 777–785.
[3] C.W. Hirt, B.D. Nichols, Volume of Fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries, J. Comp. Phys. 39 (1) (1981) 201–225.
[4] C. Wang, A.J. Paul, W.W. Fincher, O.J. Huey, Computational analysis of fluid flow and heat transfer during the EPC process, AFS Trans. 101 (1993) 897–904.
[5] Y. Liu, S.I. Bakhtiyarov, R.A. Overfelt, Numerical modeling and experimental verification of mold filling and evolved gas pressure in lost foam casting process, J. Mater. Sci. 37 (14) (2002) 2997–3003.
[6] S.M.H. Mirbagheri, H. Esmaeileian, S. Serajzadeh, N. Varahram, P. Davami, Simulation of melt flow in coated mould cavity in the lost foam casting process, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 142 (2003) 493–507.
[7] J.-H. Kuo, J.-C. Chen, Y.-N. Pan, W.-S. Hwang, Mold filling analysis in lost foam casting process for aluminum alloys and its experimental validation, Mater. Trans. 44 (10) (2003) 2169–2174.
[8] C.W. Hirt, Flow-3D User’s Manual, Flow Science Inc., 2005.
[9] E.S. Duff, Fluid flow aspects of solidification modeling: simulation of low pressure die casting, The University of Queensland, Ph.D. Thesis, 1999.
[10] X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, The effects of foam density and metal velocity on the heat and mass transfer in the lost foam casting process, in: Proceedings of the ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference, 2003,
pp. 317–323.
[11] W. Sun, P. Scarber Jr., H. Littleton, Validation and improvement of computer modeling of the lost foam casting process via real time X-ray technology, in: Multiphase Phenomena and CFD Modeling and Simulation in
Materials Processes, Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 2004, pp. 245–251.
[12] T.V. Molibog, Modeling of metal/pattern replacement in the lost foam casting process, Materials Engineering, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Ph.D. Thesis, 2002.
[13] X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, Measurement of kinetic zone temperature and heat transfer coefficient in the lost foam casting process, ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Congr. (2004) 411–418.
[14] X. Yao, An experimental analysis of casting formation in the expendable
pattern casting (EPC) process, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, M.S. Thesis, 1994.
[15] M.R. Barkhudarov, C.W. Hirt, Tracking defects, Die Casting Engineer 43 (1) (1999) 44–52.
[16] C.W. Hirt, Modeling the Lost Foam Process with Defect PredictionsProgress Report: Lost-Foam Model Extensions, Wicking, Flow Science Inc., 1999.
[17] D. Wang, Thermophysical Properties, Solidification Design Center, Auburn University, 2001.
[18] S. Shivkumar, B. Gallois, Physico-chemical aspects of the full mold casting of aluminum alloys, part II: metal flow in simple patterns, AFS Trans. 95 (1987) 801–812.

Simulation Gallery

Simulation Gallery

Simulation Gallery | 시뮬레이션 갤러리

시뮬레이션 비디오 갤러리에서 FLOW-3D  제품군으로 모델링 할 수 있는 다양한 가능성을 살펴보십시오 .

적층 제조 시뮬레이션 갤러리

FLOW-3D AM 은 레이저 파우더 베드 융합, 바인더 제트 및 직접 에너지 증착과 같은 적층 제조 공정을 시뮬레이션하고 분석합니다. FLOW-3D AM 의 다중 물리 기능은 공정 매개 변수의 분석 및 최적화를 위해 분말 확산 및 압축, 용융 풀 역학, L-PBF 및 DED에 대한 다공성 형성, 바인더 분사 공정을 위한 수지 침투 및 확산에 대한 매우 정확한 시뮬레이션을 제공합니다. 

Multi-material Laser Powder Bed Fusion | FLOW-3D AM

Micro and meso scale simulations using FLOW-3D AM help us understand the mixing of different materials in the melt pool and the formation of potential defects such as lack of fusion and porosity. In this simulation, the stainless steel and aluminum powders have independently-defined temperature dependent material properties that FLOW-3D AM tracks to accurately capture the melt pool dynamics. Learn more about FLOW-3D AM’s mutiphysics simulation capabilities at https://www.flow3d.com/products/flow3…

Laser Welding Simulation Gallery

FLOW-3D WELD 는 레이저 용접 공정에 대한 강력한 통찰력을 제공하여 공정 최적화를 달성합니다. 더 나은 공정 제어로 다공성, 열 영향 영역을 최소화하고 미세 구조 진화를 제어 할 수 있습니다. 레이저 용접 공정을 정확하게 시뮬레이션하기 위해 FLOW-3D WELD 는 레이저 열원, 레이저-재료 상호 작용, 유체 흐름, 열 전달, 표면 장력, 응고, 다중 레이저 반사 및 위상 변화를 특징으로 합니다.

Keyhole welding simulation | FLOW-3D WELD

물 및 환경 시뮬레이션 갤러리

FLOW-3D 는 물고기 통로, 댐 파손, 배수로, 눈사태, 수력 발전 및 기타 수자원 및 환경 공학 과제 모델링을 포함하여 유압 산업에 대한 많은 응용 분야를 가지고 있습니다. 엔지니어는 수력 발전소의 기존 인프라 용량을 늘리고, 어류 통로, 수두 손실을 최소화하는 흡입구, 포 이베이 설계 및 테일 레이스 흐름을위한 개선 된 설계를 개발하고, 수세 및 퇴적 및 공기 유입을 분석 할 수 있습니다.

금속 주조 시뮬레이션 갤러리

FLOW-3D CAST  에는 캐스팅을 위해 특별히 설계된 광범위하고 강력한 물리적 모델이 포함되어 있습니다. 이러한 특수 모델에는 lost foam casting, non-Newtonian fluids, and die cycling에 대한 알고리즘이 포함됩니다. FLOW-3D CAST 의 강력한 시뮬레이션 엔진과 결함 예측을 위한 새로운 도구는 설계주기를 단축하고 비용을 절감 할 수 있는 통찰력을 제공합니다.

HPDC |Comparison of slow shot profiles and entrained air during a filling simulation |FLOW-3D CAST

Shown is a video comparing two slow shot profiles. The graphs highlight the shot profiles through time and the difference in entrained air between the slow shots. Note the lack of air entrained in shot sleeve with calculated shot profile which yields a much better controlled flow within the shot sleeve.

Coastal & Maritime Applications | FLOW-3D

FLOW-3D는 선박 설계, 슬로싱 다이내믹스, 파동 충격 및 환기 등 연안 및 해양 애플리케이션에 이상적인 소프트웨어입니다. 연안 애플리케이션의 경우 FLOW-3D는 연안 구조물에 심각한 폭풍과 쓰나미 파장의 세부 정보를 정확하게 예측하고 플래시 홍수 및 중요 구조물 홍수 및 손상 분석에 사용됩니다.

코어 가스(Core Gas)

코어 가스(Core Gas)

 

코어로 주조 모델링 (Modeling Castings with Cores)

모래 속의 화학 결합제는 용융 된 금속에 의해 가열 될 때 가스를 생성 할 수 있으며 적절하게 환기되지 않으면 가스가 금속으로 흘러 가스의 다공성 결함이 발생할 수 있습니다. 이것은 빠르게 가열되고 긴 환기 경로를 갖는 주물의 얇은 내부 특징을 형성하는 코어에서 가장 가능성이 높습니다. FLOW-3D CAST의 코어 가스 모델은 이러한 가스 결함의 가능성을 예측하고 코어에서 모든 갇히는 가스들을 안전하게 배출 할 수있는 코어 벤팅을 설계하는 데 도움이됩니다.

 

알루미늄 및 철 주조의 결함 모델링 (Modeling Defects in Aluminum and Iron Castings)

‘Core Gas’ 모델은 철 주물 (그림 1)과 알루미늄 주물 (그림 2) 모두에서 수지 결합 코어의 결함을 예측합니다. 충전 및 응고 모델과 동시에 작동이 가능하며 주조의 충전 중 및 충전 후 갇히는 가스 생성 및 흐름을 계산합니다.

 

그림 1 : 열린 플라스크 부분 V8 Al 블록 어셈블리의 채우기. 두 개의 코어는 블록의 워터 재킷 공동을 형성합니다. 플라스크 바닥에 Al이 20 초 안에 채워집니다.

그림 2 : 환기가 되지 않을 때 워터 재킷 코어는 충전 중에 금속에 가스를 불어 넣습니다.
The realm of operations of FLOW-3D

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING SIMULATIONS

Capabilities of FLOW-3D

FLOW-3D는 자유 표면 유체 흐름 시뮬레이션을 전문으로하는 다중 물리 CFD 소프트웨어입니다. 자유 표면의 동적 진화를 추적하는 소프트웨어의 알고리즘인 VOF (Volume of Fluid) 방법은 Flow Science의 설립자인 Tony Hirt 박사가 개척했습니다.

또한 FLOW-3D에는 금속 주조, 잉크젯 인쇄, 레이저 용접 및 적층 제조 (AM)와 같은 광범위한 응용 분야를 시뮬레이션하기위한 물리 모델이 내장되어 있습니다.
적층 제조 시뮬레이션 소프트웨어, 특히 L-PBF (레이저 파우더 베드 융합 공정)의 현상 유지는 열 왜곡, 잔류 응력 및지지 구조 생성과 같은 부분 규모 모델링에 도움이되는 열 기계 시뮬레이션에 초점을 맞추고 있습니다.

유용하지만 용융 풀 역학 및 볼링 및 다공성과 같은 관련 결함에 대한 정보는 일반적으로 이러한 접근 방식의 영역 밖에 있습니다. 용융 풀 내의 유체 흐름, 열 전달 및 표면 장력이 열 구배 및 냉각 속도에 영향을 미치며 이는 다시 미세 구조 진화에 영향을 미친다는 점을 명심하는 것도 중요합니다.

FLOW-3D와 이산 요소법 (DEM) 및 WELD 모듈을 사용하여 분말 및 용융 풀 규모에서 시뮬레이션 할 수 있습니다.
구현되는 관련 물리학에는 점성 흐름, 열 전달, 응고, 상 변화, 반동 압력, 차폐 가스 압력, 표면 장력, 움직이는 물체 및 분말 / 입자 역학이 포함됩니다. 이러한 접근 방식은 합금에 대한 공정을 성공적으로 개발할 수 있게 하고, AM 기계 제조업체와 AM 기술의 최종 사용자 모두에게 관심있는 미세 구조 진화에 대한 통찰력을 제공하는데 도움이 됩니다.

The realm of operations of FLOW-3D
The realm of operations of FLOW-3D

FLOW-3D는 레이저 분말 베드 융합 (L-PBF), 직접 에너지 증착 (DED) 및 바인더 제트 공정으로 확장되는 기능을 가지고 있습니다.
FLOW-3D를 사용하면 분말 확산 및 패킹, 레이저 / 입자 상호 작용, 용융 풀 역학, 표면 형태 및 후속 미세 구조 진화를 정확하게 시뮬레이션 할 수 있습니다. 이러한 기능은 FLOW-3D에 고유하며 계산 효율성이 높은 방식으로 달성됩니다.

예를 들어 1.0mm x 0.4mm x 0.3mm 크기의 계산 영역에서 레이저 빔의 단일 트랙을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 레이저 용융 모델은 단 8 개의 물리적 코어에서 약 2 시간이 걸립니다.
FLOW-3D는 모든 관련 물리 구현 간의 격차를 해소하는 동시에 업계 및 연구 표준에서 허용하는 시간 프레임으로 결과를 생성합니다. 분말 패킹, 롤러를 통한 파워 확산, 분말의 레이저 용융, 용융 풀 형성 및 응고를 고려하고 다층 분말 베드 융합 공정을 위해 이러한 단계를 순차적으로 반복하여 FLOW-3D에서 전체 AM 공정을 시뮬레이션 할 수 있습니다.

FLOW-3D의 다층 시뮬레이션은 이전에 응고된 층의 열 이력을 저장한다는 점에서 독특하며, 열 전달을 고려하여 이전에 응고된 층에 확산된 새로운 분말 입자 세트에 대해 시뮬레이션이 수행됩니다.
또한, 응고 된 베드의 열 왜곡 및 잔류 응력은 FLOW-3D를 사용하여 평가할 수 있으며, 보다 복잡한 분석을 수행하기 위해 FLOW-3D의 압력 및 온도 데이터를 Abaqus 및 MSC Nastran과 같은 FEA 소프트웨어로 내보낼 수 있습니다.

Sequence of a multi-layer L-PBF simulation setup in FLOW-3D

Ease of Use

FLOW-3D는 다양한 응용 분야에서 거의 40 년 동안 사용되어 왔습니다. 사용자 피드백을 기반으로 UI 개발자는 소프트웨어를 사용하기 매우 직관적으로 만들었으며 새로운 사용자는 시뮬레이션 설정의 순서를 거의 또는 전혀 어려움없이 이해합니다.
사용자는 FLOW3D에서 구현 된 다양한 모델의 이론에 정통하며 새로운 실험을 설계 할 수 있습니다. 실습 튜토리얼, 비디오 강의, 예제 시뮬레이션 및 기술 노트의 저장소도 사용할 수 있습니다.
사용자가 특정 수준의 경험에 도달하면 고급 수치 교육 및 소프트웨어 사용자 지정 교육을 사용할 수 있습니다.

Available Literature

실험 데이터에 대해 FLOW-3D 모델을 검증하는 몇 가지 독립적으로 발표된 연구가 있습니다. 여기에서 수록된 저널 논문은 레이저 용접 및 적층 제조 공정으로 제한됩니다. 더 많은 참조는 당사 웹 사이트에서 확인할 수 있습니다.

Laser Welding

  1. L.J.Zhang, J.X.Zhang, A.Gumenyuk, M.Rethmeier, S.J.Na, Numerical simulation of full penetration laser welding of thick steel plate with high power high brightness laser, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 214, Issue 8, 2014.
    A study by researchers from BAM in Germany, KAIST in Korea, and State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior of Materials in China that focuses on keyhole dynamics and full penetration laser welding of steel plates.
  2. Runqi Lin, Hui-ping Wang, Fenggui Lu, Joshua Solomon, Blair E.
    Carlson, Numerical study of keyhole dynamics and keyhole-induced porosity formation in remote laser welding of Al alloys, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 108, Part A, 2017.
    General Motors (GM) and Shangai University collaborated on a study on the influence of welding speed and weld angle of inclination on porosity occurrence in laser keyhole welding.
  3. Koji Tsukimoto, Masashi Kitamura, Shuji Tanigawa, Sachio Shimohata, and Masahiko Mega, Laser Welding Repair for Single Crystal Blades, International Gas Turbine Congress, Tokyo, 2015.
    Mitsubishi Heavy Industry’s study on laser welding repair using laser cladding for single Ni crystal alloys used in gas turbine blades.

Additive Manufacturing

  1. Yu-Che Wu, Cheng-Hung San, Chih-Hsiang Chang, Huey-Jiuan Lin, Raed Marwan, Shuhei Baba, Weng-Sing Hwang, Numerical modeling of melt-pool behavior in selective laser melting with random powder distribution and experimental validation, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 254, 2018
    This paper discusses powder bed compaction with random packing for different powder-size distributions, and the importance of considering evaporation effects in the melting process to validate the melt pool dimensions.
  2. Lee, Y.S., and W.Zhang, Mesoscopic simulation of heat transfer and fluid flow in laser powder bed additive manufacturing, Proceedings of the Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Austin, TX, USA. 2015
    A study conducted by Ohio State University researchers to understand the influence of process parameters in formation of balling defects.
  3. Y.S. Lee, W.Zhang, Modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow and solidification microstructure of nickel-base superalloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, Additive Manufacturing, Volume 12, Part B, 2016
    A study conducted by Ohio State University researchers to understand the influence of solidification parameters, calculated from the temperature fields, on solidification morphology and grain size using existing theoretical models in laser powder bed fusion processes.

 

 

Casting Case Study

Casting Case Study

금속 주조물의 결함을 식별하고, 가볍고 튼튼한 주조 부품을 위해 새로운 재료로 부품을 설계하거나, 최적의 설계를 위해 반복적인 설계 작업을 수행하는 것은 고객이 당사의 소프트웨어를 사용하여 작업 요구 사항을 충족하고, 고철 비율을 줄임으로써 조직의 비용을 절감하는 일부 방법입니다.

이를 통해 제품 개발 시간을 단축함으로써 제품의 시장 출시 및 경쟁 우위를 위한 시간 확보가 용이해 집니다.

Customer Case Studies

Increasing Productivity by Reducing Ejection Times
Realizing Da Vinci’s Il Cavallo
Aluminum Integral Foam Molding Process

Solidification model

Solidification model

FLOW-3D CAST v5.1의 새로운 최첨단 화학 기반 고체화 모델은 주조 시뮬레이션을 새로운 단계로 발전시킬것 입니다. 사용자는 주조 부품의 강도와 무결성을 예측하면서도 고철을 줄이고 제품 안전 및 성능 요구사항을 충족할 수 있습니다.

Solidification model capabilities

새로운 응고모델은 핵, 분리, 냉각 조건을 고려한 온도와 화학의 진화로 인한 잠열, 열전도도, 열 용량, 밀도, 점성 등을 포함한 고체화 경로와 재료 특성을 계산합니다.

응고모델은 이차 덴드라이트 암 사핑(SDAS) 및 입자 크기와 같은 구성 및 냉각 조건에 기반한 미세 구조 진화를 예측합니다. 또한 확산과 집착으로 인한 매크로 분리를 예측합니다. 기계적 특성과 미세구조 사이의 경험적 관계는 실험 측정을 기반으로 합니다. 독특하고 강력한 마이크로 구조와 기계적 특성 예측 기능을 갖춘 새로운 고체화 모델은 마이크로도 예측을 위한 차원 없는 니야마 기준과 같은 다른 모델의 기초를 제공합니다.

응고 미세 구조와 다공성 결함은 주물의 기계적 특성에 영향을 미치는 주요 요소입니다. 또한, 국소 미세 구조는 합금 원소의 분리에 따른 합금의 화학적 구성, 응고율 및 화학적 비동종성에 의해 결정됩니다. 공정 설계자는 새로운 응고 모델을 사용하여 다양한 공정 매개변수 및 합금 조합이 기계적 특성에 미치는 영향을 판단하여 주조물의 성능을 최적화하여 가능한 최고 품질의 안전한 제품을 생산할 수 있습니다.

Solidification of A356

 

Solidification of A206

MICROSTRUCTURE OUTPUT

  • Secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS)
  • Grain size

MECHANICAL PROPERTY OUTPUT

  • Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
  • Elongation
  • Quality index
  • Yield strength for heat treated properties

DEFECT INDICATORS

  • Dimensionless Niyama criterion
  • Microporosity

완전하고 단순화된 화학 기반 응고 모델

유연성 모델

솔리드화 모델에는 전체 모델과 단순화된 모델이 모두 포함되어 있어 사용자가 시뮬레이션 워크플로우를 보다 효과적으로 제어할 수 있습니다. 전체 모델은 용융이 응고될 때 화응고 모델에는 전체 모델과 단순 모델이 모두 포함되어 있어 사용자가 시뮬레이션 워크 플로우를 보다 효과적으로 제어할 수 있습니다. 전체 모델은 용해가 응고됨에 따라 화학적 구성과 위상 변화를 고려하는 반면, 단순화된 모델은 보다 빠른 런트를 제공하고 전체 모델만큼 많은 메모리를 필요로 하지 않습니다. 전체 모델을 기반으로 한 재시작 시뮬레이션은 단순화된 모델에서 시작하거나 그 반대로 시작할 수 있습니다. 이를 통해 다양한 시뮬레이션 유형과 시뮬레이션 단계에 적합한 모델을 사용할 수 있는 완전한 유연성을 제공합니다.

사용할 모델

자원을 적게 사용하는 것의 명백한 이점 때문에 사용자는 가능한 단순화된 모델을 많이 사용할 것을 권장한다. 매크로 분리가 중요한 경우에는 사용자가 전체 모델을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다. 열 다이 사이클 시뮬레이션의 경우, 이러한 모델링 시나리오에서는 완전한 분석이 필요하지 않기 때문에 소프트웨어가 단순화된 모델을 적용합니다.

일부 박막형 주조물의 경우 확산 및 홍보에 기반한 매크로 세그멘테이션은 중요하지 않습니다. 이러한 주조물에서 응고 경로는 전체적으로 거의 동일합니다. 따라서 각 개별 계산 셀에 대해 응고 중에 조성 및 위상 변화를 추적할 필요가 없습니다. 이러한 유형의 시나리오에서는 사용자가 간소화된 응고 모델을 사용하여 솔루션에 더 빨리 도달하는 것이 좋습니다.

FLOW-3D CAST Bibliography

FLOW-3D CAST bibliography

아래는 FSI의 금속 주조 참고 문헌에 수록된 기술 논문 모음입니다. 이 모든 논문에는 FLOW-3D CAST 해석 결과가 수록되어 있습니다. FLOW-3D CAST를 사용하여 금속 주조 산업의 응용 프로그램을 성공적으로 시뮬레이션하는 방법에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오.

Below is a collection of technical papers in our Metal Casting Bibliography. All of these papers feature FLOW-3D CAST results. Learn more about how FLOW-3D CAST can be used to successfully simulate applications for the Metal Casting Industry.

33-20     Eric Riedel, Martin Liepe Stefan Scharf, Simulation of ultrasonic induced cavitation and acoustic streaming in liquid and solidifying aluminum, Metals, 10.4; 476, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10040476

20-20   Wu Yue, Li Zhuo and Lu Rong, Simulation and visual tester verification of solid propellant slurry vacuum plate casting, Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 2020. doi.org/10.1002/prep.201900411

17-20   C.A. Jones, M.R. Jolly, A.E.W. Jarfors and M. Irwin, An experimental characterization of thermophysical properties of a porous ceramic shell used in the investment casting process, Supplimental Proceedings, pp. 1095-1105, TMS 2020 149th Annual Meeting and Exhibition, San Diego, CA, February 23-27, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36296-6_102

12-20   Franz Josef Feikus, Paul Bernsteiner, Ricardo Fernández Gutiérrez and Michal Luszczak , Further development of electric motor housings, MTZ Worldwide, 81, pp. 38-43, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/s38313-019-0176-z

09-20   Mingfan Qi, Yonglin Kang, Yuzhao Xu, Zhumabieke Wulabieke and Jingyuan Li, A novel rheological high pressure die-casting process for preparing large thin-walled Al–Si–Fe–Mg–Sr alloy with high heat conductivity, high plasticity and medium strength, Materials Science and Engineering: A, 776, art. no. 139040, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.139040

07-20   Stefan Heugenhauser, Erhard Kaschnitz and Peter Schumacher, Development of an aluminum compound casting process – Experiments and numerical simulations, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 279, art. no. 116578, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.116578

05-20   Michail Papanikolaou, Emanuele Pagone, Mark Jolly and Konstantinos Salonitis, Numerical simulation and evaluation of Campbell running and gating systems, Metals, 10.1, art. no. 68, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10010068

102-19   Ferencz Peti and Gabriela Strnad, The effect of squeeze pin dimension and operational parameters on material homogeneity of aluminium high pressure die cast parts, Acta Marisiensis. Seria Technologica, 16.2, 2019. doi.org/0.2478/amset-2019-0010

94-19   E. Riedel, I. Horn, N. Stein, H. Stein, R. Bahr, and S. Scharf, Ultrasonic treatment: a clean technology that supports sustainability incasting processes, Procedia, 26th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, May 7-9, 2019. 

93-19   Adrian V. Catalina, Liping Xue, Charles A. Monroe, Robin D. Foley, and John A. Griffin, Modeling and Simulation of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AlSi- and AlCu-based Alloys, Transactions, 123rd Metalcasting Congress, Atlanta, GA, USA, April 27-30, 2019. 

84-19   Arun Prabhakar, Michail Papanikolaou, Konstantinos Salonitis, and Mark Jolly, Sand casting of sheet lead: numerical simulation of metal flow and solidification, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, pp. 1-13, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04522-3

72-19   Santosh Reddy Sama, Eric Macdonald, Robert Voigt, and Guha Manogharan, Measurement of metal velocity in sand casting during mold filling, Metals, 9:1079, 2019. doi.org/10.3390/met9101079

71-19   Sebastian Findeisen, Robin Van Der Auwera, Michael Heuser, and Franz-Josef Wöstmann, Gießtechnische Fertigung von E-Motorengehäusen mit interner Kühling (Casting production of electric motor housings with internal cooling), Geisserei, 106, pp. 72-78, 2019 (in German).

58-19     Von Malte Leonhard, Matthias Todte, and Jörg Schäffer, Realistic simulation of the combustion of exothermic feeders, Casting, No. 2, pp. 28-32, 2019. In English and German.

52-19     S. Lakkum and P. Kowitwarangkul, Numerical investigations on the effect of gas flow rate in the gas stirred ladle with dual plugs, International Conference on Materials Research and Innovation (ICMARI), Bangkok, Thailand, December 17-21, 2018. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 526, 2019. doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/526/1/012028

47-19     Bing Zhou, Shuai Lu, Kaile Xu, Chun Xu, and Zhanyong Wang, Microstructure and simulation of semisolid aluminum alloy castings in the process of stirring integrated transfer-heat (SIT) with water cooling, International Journal of Metalcasting, Online edition, pp. 1-13, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-019-00357-6

31-19     Zihao Yuan, Zhipeng Guo, and S.M. Xiong, Skin layer of A380 aluminium alloy die castings and its blistering during solution treatment, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, Vol. 35, No. 9, pp. 1906-1916, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2019.05.011

25-19     Stefano Mascetti, Raul Pirovano, and Giulio Timelli, Interazione metallo liquido/stampo: Il fenomeno della metallizzazione, La Metallurgia Italiana, No. 4, pp. 44-50, 2019. In Italian.

20-19     Fu-Yuan Hsu, Campbellology for runner system design, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 187-199, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_19

19-19     Chengcheng Lyu, Michail Papanikolaou, and Mark Jolly, Numerical process modelling and simulation of Campbell running systems designs, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 53-64, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_5

18-19     Adrian V. Catalina, Liping Xue, and Charles Monroe, A solidification model with application to AlSi-based alloys, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 201-213, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_20

17-19     Fu-Yuan Hsu and Yu-Hung Chen, The validation of feeder modeling for ductile iron castings, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 227-238, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_22

04-19   Santosh Reddy Sama, Tony Badamo, Paul Lynch and Guha Manogharan, Novel sprue designs in metal casting via 3D sand-printing, Additive Manufacturing, Vol. 25, pp. 563-578, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.009

02-19   Jingying Sun, Qichi Le, Li Fu, Jing Bai, Johannes Tretter, Klaus Herbold and Hongwei Huo, Gas entrainment behavior of aluminum alloy engine crankcases during the low-pressure-die-casting-process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 266, pp. 274-282, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.11.016

92-18   Fast, Flexible… More Versatile, Foundry Management Technology, March, 2018. 

82-18   Xu Zhao, Ping Wang, Tao Li, Bo-yu Zhang, Peng Wang, Guan-zhou Wang and Shi-qi Lu, Gating system optimization of high pressure die casting thin-wall AlSi10MnMg longitudinal loadbearing beam based on numerical simulation, China Foundry, Vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 436-442, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s41230-018-8052-z

80-18   Michail Papanikolaou, Emanuele Pagone, Konstantinos Salonitis, Mark Jolly and Charalampos Makatsoris, A computational framework towards energy efficient casting processes, Sustainable Design and Manufacturing 2018: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Sustainable Design and Manufacturing (KES-SDM-18), Gold Coast, Australia, June 24-26 2018, SIST 130, pp. 263-276, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04290-5_27

64-18   Vasilios Fourlakidis, Ilia Belov and Attila Diószegi, Strength prediction for pearlitic lamellar graphite iron: Model validation, Metals, Vol. 8, No. 9, 2018. doi.org/10.3390/met8090684

51-18   Xue-feng Zhu, Bao-yi Yu, Li Zheng, Bo-ning Yu, Qiang Li, Shu-ning Lü and Hao Zhang, Influence of pouring methods on filling process, microstructure and mechanical properties of AZ91 Mg alloy pipe by horizontal centrifugal casting, China Foundry, vol. 15, no. 3, pp.196-202, 2018. doi.org/10.1007/s41230-018-7256-6

47-18   Santosh Reddy Sama, Jiayi Wang and Guha Manogharan, Non-conventional mold design for metal casting using 3D sand-printing, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 34-B, pp. 765-775, 2018. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.03.049

42-18   M. Koru and O. Serçe, The Effects of Thermal and Dynamical Parameters and Vacuum Application on Porosity in High-Pressure Die Casting of A383 Al-Alloy, International Journal of Metalcasting, pp. 1-17, 2018. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-018-0214-7

41-18   Abhilash Viswanath, S. Savithri, U.T.S. Pillai, Similitude analysis on flow characteristics of water, A356 and AM50 alloys during LPC process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol. 257, pp. 270-277, 2018. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.02.031

29-18   Seyboldt, Christoph and Liewald, Mathias, Investigation on thixojoining to produce hybrid components with intermetallic phase, AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1960, no. 1, 2018. doi.org/10.1063/1.5034992

28-18   Laura Schomer, Mathias Liewald and Kim Rouven Riedmüller, Simulation of the infiltration process of a ceramic open-pore body with a metal alloy in semi-solid state to design the manufacturing of interpenetrating phase composites, AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1960, no. 1, 2018. doi.org/10.1063/1.5034991

41-17   Y. N. Wu et al., Numerical Simulation on Filling Optimization of Copper Rotor for High Efficient Electric Motors in Die Casting Process, Materials Science Forum, Vol. 898, pp. 1163-1170, 2017.

12-17   A.M.  Zarubin and O.A. Zarubina, Controlling the flow rate of melt in gravity die casting of aluminum alloys, Liteynoe Proizvodstvo (Casting Manufacturing), pp 16-20, 6, 2017. In Russian.

10-17   A.Y. Korotchenko, Y.V. Golenkov, M.V. Tverskoy and D.E. Khilkov, Simulation of the Flow of Metal Mixtures in the Mold, Liteynoe Proizvodstvo (Casting Manufacturing), pp 18-22, 5, 2017. In Russian.

08-17   Morteza Morakabian Esfahani, Esmaeil Hajjari, Ali Farzadi and Seyed Reza Alavi Zaree, Prediction of the contact time through modeling of heat transfer and fluid flow in compound casting process of Al/Mg light metals, Journal of Materials Research, © Materials Research Society 2017

04-17   Huihui Liu, Xiongwei He and Peng Guo, Numerical simulation on semi-solid die-casting of magnesium matrix composite based on orthogonal experiment, AIP Conference Proceedings 1829, 020037 (2017); doi.org/10.1063/1.4979769.

100-16  Robert Watson, New numerical techniques to quantify and predict the effect of entrainment defects, applied to high pressure die casting, PhD Thesis: University of Birmingham, 2016.

88-16   M.C. Carter, T. Kauffung, L. Weyenberg and C. Peters, Low Pressure Die Casting Simulation Discovery through Short Shot, Cast Expo & Metal Casting Congress, April 16-19, 2016, Minneapolis, MN, Copyright 2016 American Foundry Society.

61-16   M. Koru and O. Serçe, Experimental and numerical determination of casting mold interfacial heat transfer coefficient in the high pressure die casting of a 360 aluminum alloy, ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA A, Vol. 129 (2016)

59-16   R. Pirovano and S. Mascetti, Tracking of collapsed bubbles during a filling simulation, La Metallurgia Italiana – n. 6 2016

43-16   Kevin Lee, Understanding shell cracking during de-wax process in investment casting, Ph.D Thesis: University of Birmingham, School of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, 2016.

35-16   Konstantinos Salonitis, Mark Jolly, Binxu Zeng, and Hamid Mehrabi, Improvements in energy consumption and environmental impact by novel single shot melting process for casting, Journal of Cleaner Production, doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.165, Open Access funded by Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, June 29, 2016

20-16   Fu-Yuan Hsu, Bifilm Defect Formation in Hydraulic Jump of Liquid Aluminum, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 2016, Band: 47, Heft 3, 1634-1648.

15-16   Mingfan Qia, Yonglin Kanga, Bing Zhoua, Wanneng Liaoa, Guoming Zhua, Yangde Lib,and Weirong Li, A forced convection stirring process for Rheo-HPDC aluminum and magnesium alloys, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 234 (2016) 353–367

112-15   José Miguel Gonçalves Ledo Belo da Costa, Optimization of filling systems for low pressure by FLOW-3D, Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Mecânica, 2015.

89-15   B.W. Zhu, L.X. Li, X. Liu, L.Q. Zhang and R. Xu, Effect of Viscosity Measurement Method to Simulate High Pressure Die Casting of Thin-Wall AlSi10MnMg Alloy Castings, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Published online, November 2015, doi.org/10.1007/s11665-015-1783-8, © ASM International.

88-15   Peng Zhang, Zhenming Li, Baoliang Liu, Wenjiang Ding and Liming Peng, Improved tensile properties of a new aluminum alloy for high pressure die casting, Materials Science & Engineering A651(2016)376–390, Available online, November 2015.

83-15   Zu-Qi Hu, Xin-Jian Zhang and Shu-Sen Wu, Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Die-Filling Behavior of High-Performance Die-Cast Al–Mg–Si–Mn Alloy, Acta Metall. Sin. (Engl. Lett.), doi.org/10.1007/s40195-015-0332-7, © The Chinese Society for Metals and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015.

82-15   J. Müller, L. Xue, M.C. Carter, C. Thoma, M. Fehlbier and M. Todte, A Die Spray Cooling Model for Thermal Die Cycling Simulations, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

81-15   M. T. Murray, L.F. Hansen, L. Chilcott, E. Li and A.M. Murray, Case Studies in the Use of Simulation- Improved Yield and Reduced Time to Market, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

80-15   R. Bhola, S. Chandra and D. Souders, Predicting Castability of Thin-Walled Parts for the HPDC Process Using Simulations, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

76-15   Prosenjit Das, Sudip K. Samanta, Shashank Tiwari and Pradip Dutta, Die Filling Behaviour of Semi Solid A356 Al Alloy Slurry During Rheo Pressure Die Casting, Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, pp 1-6, October 2015

74-15   Murat KORU and Orhan SERÇE, Yüksek Basınçlı Döküm Prosesinde Enjeksiyon Parametrelerine Bağlı Olarak Döküm Simülasyon, Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Science, Science Journal (CSJ), Vol. 36, No: 5 (2015) ISSN: 1300-1949, May 2015

69-15   A. Viswanath, S. Sivaraman, U. T. S. Pillai, Computer Simulation of Low Pressure Casting Process Using FLOW-3D, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 830-831, pp. 45-48, September 2015

68-15   J. Aneesh Kumar, K. Krishnakumar and S. Savithri, Computer Simulation of Centrifugal Casting Process Using FLOW-3D, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 830-831, pp. 53-56, September 2015

59-15   F. Hosseini Yekta and S. A. Sadough Vanini, Simulation of the flow of semi-solid steel alloy using an enhanced model, Metals and Materials International, August 2015.

44-15   Ulrich E. Klotz, Tiziana Heiss and Dario Tiberto, Platinum investment casting material properties, casting simulation and optimum process parameters, Jewelry Technology Forum 2015

41-15   M. Barkhudarov and R. Pirovano, Minimizing Air Entrainment in High Pressure Die Casting Shot Sleeves, GIFA 2015, Düsseldorf, Germany

40-15   M. Todte, A. Fent, and H. Lang, Simulation in support of the development of innovative processes in the casting industry, GIFA 2015, Düsseldorf, Germany

19-15   Bruce Morey, Virtual casting improves powertrain design, Automotive Engineering, SAE International, March 2015.

15-15   K.S. Oh, J.D. Lee, S.J. Kim and J.Y. Choi, Development of a large ingot continuous caster, Metall. Res. Technol. 112, 203 (2015) © EDP Sciences, 2015, doi.org/10.1051/metal/2015006, www.metallurgical-research.org

14-15   Tiziana Heiss, Ulrich E. Klotz and Dario Tiberto, Platinum Investment Casting, Part I: Simulation and Experimental Study of the Casting Process, Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2015, 59, (2), 95, doi.org/10.1595/205651315×687399

138-14 Christopher Thoma, Wolfram Volk, Ruben Heid, Klaus Dilger, Gregor Banner and Harald Eibisch, Simulation-based prediction of the fracture elongation as a failure criterion for thin-walled high-pressure die casting components, International Journal of Metalcasting, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 47-54, 2014. doi.org/10.1007/BF03355594

107-14  Mehran Seyed Ahmadi, Dissolution of Si in Molten Al with Gas Injection, ProQuest Dissertations And Theses; Thesis (Ph.D.), University of Toronto (Canada), 2014; Publication Number: AAT 3637106; ISBN: 9781321195231; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 76-02(E), Section: B.; 191 p.

99-14   R. Bhola and S. Chandra, Predicting Castability for Thin-Walled HPDC Parts, Foundry Management Technology, December 2014

92-14   Warren Bishenden and Changhua Huang, Venting design and process optimization of die casting process for structural components; Part II: Venting design and process optimization, Die Casting Engineer, November 2014

90-14   Ken’ichi Kanazawa, Ken’ichi Yano, Jun’ichi Ogura, and Yasunori Nemoto, Optimum Runner Design for Die-Casting using CFD Simulations and Verification with Water-Model Experiments, Proceedings of the ASME 2014 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, IMECE2014, November 14-20, 2014, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, IMECE2014-37419

89-14   P. Kapranos, C. Carney, A. Pola, and M. Jolly, Advanced Casting Methodologies: Investment Casting, Centrifugal Casting, Squeeze Casting, Metal Spinning, and Batch Casting, In Comprehensive Materials Processing; McGeough, J., Ed.; 2014, Elsevier Ltd., 2014; Vol. 5, pp 39–67.

77-14   Andrei Y. Korotchenko, Development of Scientific and Technological Approaches to Casting Net-Shaped Castings in Sand Molds Free of Shrinkage Defects and Hot Tears, Post-doctoral thesis: Russian State Technological University, 2014. In Russian.

69-14   L. Xue, M.C. Carter, A.V. Catalina, Z. Lin, C. Li, and C. Qiu, Predicting, Preventing Core Gas Defects in Steel Castings, Modern Casting, September 2014

68-14   L. Xue, M.C. Carter, A.V. Catalina, Z. Lin, C. Li, and C. Qiu, Numerical Simulation of Core Gas Defects in Steel Castings, Copyright 2014 American Foundry Society, 118th Metalcasting Congress, April 8 – 11, 2014, Schaumburg, IL

51-14   Jesus M. Blanco, Primitivo Carranza, Rafael Pintos, Pedro Arriaga, and Lakhdar Remaki, Identification of Defects Originated during the Filling of Cast Pieces through Particles Modelling, 11th World Congress on Computational Mechanics (WCCM XI), 5th European Conference on Computational Mechanics (ECCM V), 6th European Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics (ECFD VI), E. Oñate, J. Oliver and A. Huerta (Eds)

47-14   B. Vijaya Ramnatha, C.Elanchezhiana, Vishal Chandrasekhar, A. Arun Kumarb, S. Mohamed Asif, G. Riyaz Mohamed, D. Vinodh Raj , C .Suresh Kumar, Analysis and Optimization of Gating System for Commutator End Bracket, Procedia Materials Science 6 ( 2014 ) 1312 – 1328, 3rd International Conference on Materials Processing and Characterisation (ICMPC 2014)

42-14  Bing Zhou, Yong-lin Kang, Guo-ming Zhu, Jun-zhen Gao, Ming-fan Qi, and Huan-huan Zhang, Forced convection rheoforming process for preparation of 7075 aluminum alloy semisolid slurry and its numerical simulation, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 24(2014) 1109−1116

37-14    A. Karwinski, W. Lesniewski, P. Wieliczko, and M. Malysza, Casting of Titanium Alloys in Centrifugal Induction Furnaces, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials, Volume 59, Issue 1, doi.org/10.2478/amm-2014-0068, 2014.

26-14    Bing Zhou, Yonglin Kang, Mingfan Qi, Huanhuan Zhang and Guoming ZhuR-HPDC Process with Forced Convection Mixing Device for Automotive Part of A380 Aluminum Alloy, Materials 2014, 7, 3084-3105; doi.org/10.3390/ma7043084

20-14  Johannes Hartmann, Tobias Fiegl, Carolin Körner, Aluminum integral foams with tailored density profile by adapted blowing agents, Applied Physics A, doi.org/10.1007/s00339-014-8377-4, March 2014.

19-14    A.Y. Korotchenko, N.A. Nikiforova, E.D. Demjanov, N.C. Larichev, The Influence of the Filling Conditions on the Service Properties of the Part Side Frame, Russian Foundryman, 1 (January), pp 40-43, 2014. In Russian.

11-14 B. Fuchs and C. Körner, Mesh resolution consideration for the viability prediction of lost salt cores in the high pressure die casting process, Progress in Computational Fluid Dynamics, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2014, Copyright © 2014 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

08-14 FY Hsu, SW Wang, and HJ Lin, The External and Internal Shrinkages in Aluminum Gravity Castings, Shape Casting: 5th International Symposium 2014. Available online at Google Books

103-13  B. Fuchs, H. Eibisch and C. Körner, Core Viability Simulation for Salt Core Technology in High-Pressure Die Casting, International Journal of Metalcasting, July 2013, Volume 7, Issue 3, pp 39–45

94-13    Randall S. Fielding, J. Crapps, C. Unal, and J.R.Kennedy, Metallic Fuel Casting Development and Parameter Optimization Simulations, International Conference on Fast reators and Related Fuel Cycles (FR13), 4-7 March 2013, Paris France

90-13  A. Karwińskia, M. Małyszaa, A. Tchórza, A. Gila, B. Lipowska, Integration of Computer Tomography and Simulation Analysis in Evaluation of Quality of Ceramic-Carbon Bonded Foam Filter, Archives of Foundry Engineering, doi.org/10.2478/afe-2013-0084, Published quarterly as the organ of the Foundry Commission of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ISSN, (2299-2944), Volume 13, Issue 4/2013

88-13  Litie and Metallurgia (Casting and Metallurgy), 3 (72), 2013, N.V.Sletova, I.N.Volnov, S.P.Zadrutsky, V.A.Chaikin, Modeling of the Process of Removing Non-metallic Inclusions in Aluminum Alloys Using the FLOW-3D program, pp 138-140. In Russian.

85-13    Michał Szucki,Tomasz Goraj, Janusz Lelito, Józef S. Suchy, Numerical Analysis of Solid Particles Flow in Liquid Metal, XXXVII International Scientific Conference Foundryman’ Day 2013, Krakow, 28-29 November 2013

84-13  Körner, C., Schwankl, M., Himmler, D., Aluminum-Aluminum compound castings by electroless deposited zinc layers, Journal of Materials Processing Technology (2014), doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.12.01483-13.

77-13  Antonio Armillotta & Raffaello Baraggi & Simone Fasoli, SLM tooling for die casting with conformal cooling channels, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, doi.org/10.1007/s00170-013-5523-7, December 2013.

64-13   Johannes Hartmann, Christina Blümel, Stefan Ernst, Tobias Fiegl, Karl-Ernst Wirth, Carolin Körner, Aluminum integral foam castings with microcellular cores by nano-functionalization, J Mater Sci, doi.org/10.1007/s10853-013-7668-z, September 2013.

46-13  Nicholas P. Orenstein, 3D Flow and Temperature Analysis of Filling a Plutonium Mold, LA-UR-13-25537, Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. Los Alamos Annual Student Symposium 2013, 2013-07-24 (Rev.1)

42-13   Yang Yue, William D. Griffiths, and Nick R. Green, Modelling of the Effects of Entrainment Defects on Mechanical Properties in a Cast Al-Si-Mg Alloy, Materials Science Forum, 765, 225, 2013.

39-13  J. Crapps, D.S. DeCroix, J.D Galloway, D.A. Korzekwa, R. Aikin, R. Fielding, R. Kennedy, C. Unal, Separate effects identification via casting process modeling for experimental measurement of U-Pu-Zr alloys, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 15 July 2013.

35-13   A. Pari, Real Life Problem Solving through Simulations in the Die Casting Industry – Case Studies, © Die Casting Engineer, July 2013.

34-13  Martin Lagler, Use of Simulation to Predict the Viability of Salt Cores in the HPDC Process – Shot Curve as a Decisive Criterion, © Die Casting Engineer, July 2013.

24-13    I.N.Volnov, Optimizatsia Liteynoi Tekhnologii, (Casting Technology Optimization), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), 3, 2013, 27-29. In Russian

23-13  M.R. Barkhudarov, I.N. Volnov, Minimizatsia Zakhvata Vozdukha v Kamere Pressovania pri Litie pod Davleniem, (Minimization of Air Entrainment in the Shot Sleeve During High Pressure Die Casting), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), 3, 2013, 30-34. In Russian

09-13  M.C. Carter and L. Xue, Simulating the Parameters that Affect Core Gas Defects in Metal Castings, Copyright 2012 American Foundry Society, Presented at the 2013 CastExpo, St. Louis, Missouri, April 2013

08-13  C. Reilly, N.R. Green, M.R. Jolly, J.-C. Gebelin, The Modelling Of Oxide Film Entrainment In Casting Systems Using Computational Modelling, Applied Mathematical Modelling, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2013.03.061, April 2013.

03-13  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A fast simulation of transient metal flow and solidification in a narrow channel. Part II. Model validation and parametric study, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.12.061.

02-13  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A fast simulation of transient metal flow and solidification in a narrow channel. Part I: Model development using lubrication approximation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.12.060.

116-12  Jufu Jianga, Ying Wang, Gang Chena, Jun Liua, Yuanfa Li and Shoujing Luo, “Comparison of mechanical properties and microstructure of AZ91D alloy motorcycle wheels formed by die casting and double control forming, Materials & Design, Volume 40, September 2012, Pages 541-549.

107-12  F.K. Arslan, A.H. Hatman, S.Ö. Ertürk, E. Güner, B. Güner, An Evaluation for Fundamentals of Die Casting Materials Selection and Design, IMMC’16 International Metallurgy & Materials Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, 2012.

103-12 WU Shu-sen, ZHONG Gu, AN Ping, WAN Li, H. NAKAE, Microstructural characteristics of Al−20Si−2Cu−0.4Mg−1Ni alloy formed by rheo-squeeze casting after ultrasonic vibration treatment, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 22 (2012) 2863-2870, November 2012. Full paper available online.

109-12 Alexandre Reikher, Numerical Analysis of Die-Casting Process in Thin Cavities Using Lubrication Approximation, Ph.D. Thesis: The University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Engineering Department (2012) Theses and Dissertations. Paper 65.

97-12 Hong Zhou and Li Heng Luo, Filling Pattern of Step Gating System in Lost Foam Casting Process and its Application, Advanced Materials Research, Volumes 602-604, Progress in Materials and Processes, 1916-1921, December 2012.

93-12  Liangchi Zhang, Chunliang Zhang, Jeng-Haur Horng and Zichen Chen, Functions of Step Gating System in the Lost Foam Casting Process, Advanced Materials Research, 591-593, 940, DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.591-593.940, November 2012.

91-12  Hong Yan, Jian Bin Zhu, Ping Shan, Numerical Simulation on Rheo-Diecasting of Magnesium Matrix Composites, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.192-193.287, Solid State Phenomena, 192-193, 287.

89-12  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A Fast Numerical Simulation for Modeling Simultaneous Metal Flow and Solidification in Thin Cavities Using the Lubrication Approximation, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications: An International Journal of Computation and Methodology, 63:2, 75-100, November 2012.

82-12  Jufu Jiang, Gang Chen, Ying Wang, Zhiming Du, Weiwei Shan, and Yuanfa Li, Microstructure and mechanical properties of thin-wall and high-rib parts of AM60B Mg alloy formed by double control forming and die casting under the optimal conditions, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.10.086, October 2012.

78-12   A. Pari, Real Life Problem Solving through Simulations in the Die Casting Industry – Case Studies, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

77-12  Y. Wang, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian and R.A. Miller, Rheological behavior models of metal matrix alloys in semi-solid casting process, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

76-12  A. Reikher and H. Gerber, Analysis of Solidification Parameters During the Die Cast Process, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

75-12 R.A. Miller, Y. Wang and K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, Estimating Cavity Fill Time, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012Indianapolis, IN.

65-12  X.H. Yang, T.J. Lu, T. Kim, Influence of non-conducting pore inclusions on phase change behavior of porous media with constant heat flux boundaryInternational Journal of Thermal Sciences, Available online 10 October 2012. Available online at SciVerse.

55-12  Hejun Li, Pengyun Wang, Lehua Qi, Hansong Zuo, Songyi Zhong, Xianghui Hou, 3D numerical simulation of successive deposition of uniform molten Al droplets on a moving substrate and experimental validation, Computational Materials Science, Volume 65, December 2012, Pages 291–301.

52-12 Hongbing Ji, Yixin Chen and Shengzhou Chen, Numerical Simulation of Inner-Outer Couple Cooling Slab Continuous Casting in the Filling Process, Advanced Materials Research (Volumes 557-559), Advanced Materials and Processes II, pp. 2257-2260, July 2012.

47-12    Petri Väyrynen, Lauri Holappa, and Seppo Louhenkilpi, Simulation of Melting of Alloying Materials in Steel Ladle, SCANMET IV – 4th International Conference on Process Development in Iron and Steelmaking, Lulea, Sweden, June 10-13, 2012.

46-12  Bin Zhang and Dave Salee, Metal Flow and Heat Transfer in Billet DC Casting Using Wagstaff® Optifill™ Metal Distribution Systems, 5th International Metal Quality Workshop, United Arab Emirates Dubai, March 18-22, 2012.

45-12 D.R. Gunasegaram, M. Givord, R.G. O’Donnell and B.R. Finnin, Improvements engineered in UTS and elongation of aluminum alloy high pressure die castings through the alteration of runner geometry and plunger velocity, Materials Science & Engineering.

44-12    Antoni Drys and Stefano Mascetti, Aluminum Casting Simulations, Desktop Engineering, September 2012

42-12   Huizhen Duan, Jiangnan Shen and Yanping Li, Comparative analysis of HPDC process of an auto part with ProCAST and FLOW-3D, Applied Mechanics and Materials Vols. 184-185 (2012) pp 90-94, Online available since 2012/Jun/14 at www.scientific.net, © (2012) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland, doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.184-185.90.

41-12    Deniece R. Korzekwa, Cameron M. Knapp, David A. Korzekwa, and John W. Gibbs, Co-Design – Fabrication of Unalloyed Plutonium, LA-UR-12-23441, MDI Summer Research Group Workshop Advanced Manufacturing, 2012-07-25/2012-07-26 (Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States)

29-12  Dario Tiberto and Ulrich E. Klotz, Computer simulation applied to jewellery casting: challenges, results and future possibilities, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng.33 012008. Full paper available at IOP.

28-12  Y Yue and N R Green, Modelling of different entrainment mechanisms and their influences on the mechanical reliability of Al-Si castings, 2012 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 33,012072.Full paper available at IOP.

27-12  E Kaschnitz, Numerical simulation of centrifugal casting of pipes, 2012 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 33 012031, Issue 1. Full paper available at IOP.

15-12  C. Reilly, N.R Green, M.R. Jolly, The Present State Of Modeling Entrainment Defects In The Shape Casting Process, Applied Mathematical Modelling, Available online 27 April 2012, ISSN 0307-904X, 10.1016/j.apm.2012.04.032.

12-12   Andrei Starobin, Tony Hirt, Hubert Lang, and Matthias Todte, Core drying simulation and validation, International Foundry Research, GIESSEREIFORSCHUNG 64 (2012) No. 1, ISSN 0046-5933, pp 2-5

10-12  H. Vladimir Martínez and Marco F. Valencia (2012). Semisolid Processing of Al/β-SiC Composites by Mechanical Stirring Casting and High Pressure Die Casting, Recent Researches in Metallurgical Engineering – From Extraction to Forming, Dr Mohammad Nusheh (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0356-1, InTech

07-12     Amir H. G. Isfahani and James M. Brethour, Simulating Thermal Stresses and Cooling Deformations, Die Casting Engineer, March 2012

06-12   Shuisheng Xie, Youfeng He and Xujun Mi, Study on Semi-solid Magnesium Alloys Slurry Preparation and Continuous Roll-casting Process, Magnesium Alloys – Design, Processing and Properties, ISBN: 978-953-307-520-4, InTech.

04-12 J. Spangenberg, N. Roussel, J.H. Hattel, H. Stang, J. Skocek, M.R. Geiker, Flow induced particle migration in fresh concrete: Theoretical frame, numerical simulations and experimental results on model fluids, Cement and Concrete Research, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2012.01.007, February 2012.

01-12   Lee, B., Baek, U., and Han, J., Optimization of Gating System Design for Die Casting of Thin Magnesium Alloy-Based Multi-Cavity LCD Housings, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Springer New York, Issn: 1059-9495, 10.1007/s11665-011-0111-1, Volume 1 / 1992 – Volume 21 / 2012. Available online at Springer Link.

104-11  Fu-Yuan Hsu and Huey Jiuan Lin, Foam Filters Used in Gravity Casting, Metall and Materi Trans B (2011) 42: 1110. doi:10.1007/s11663-011-9548-8.

99-11    Eduardo Trejo, Centrifugal Casting of an Aluminium Alloy, thesis: Doctor of Philosophy, Metallurgy and Materials School of Engineering University of Birmingham, October 2011. Full paper available upon request.

93-11  Olga Kononova, Andrejs Krasnikovs ,Videvuds Lapsa,Jurijs Kalinka and Angelina Galushchak, Internal Structure Formation in High Strength Fiber Concrete during Casting, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 59 2011

76-11  J. Hartmann, A. Trepper, and C. Körner, Aluminum Integral Foams with Near-Microcellular Structure, Advanced Engineering Materials 2011, Volume 13 (2011) No. 11, © Wiley-VCH

71-11  Fu-Yuan Hsu and Yao-Ming Yang Confluence Weld in an Aluminum Gravity Casting, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Available online 23 November 2011, ISSN 0924-0136, 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2011.11.006.

65-11     V.A. Chaikin, A.V. Chaikin, I.N.Volnov, A Study of the Process of Late Modification Using Simulation, in Zagotovitelnye Proizvodstva v Mashinostroenii, 10, 2011, 8-12. In Russian.

54-11  Ngadia Taha Niane and Jean-Pierre Michalet, Validation of Foundry Process for Aluminum Parts with FLOW-3D Software, Proceedings of the 2011 International Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting, 2011.

51-11    A. Reikher and H. Gerber, Calculation of the Die Cast parameters of the Thin Wall Aluminum Cast Part, 2011 Die Casting Congress & Tabletop, Columbus, OH, September 19-21, 2011

50-11   Y. Wang, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, and R.A. Miller, Runner design optimization based on CFD simulation for a die with multiple cavities, 2011 Die Casting Congress & Tabletop, Columbus, OH, September 19-21, 2011

48-11 A. Karwiński, W. Leśniewski, S. Pysz, P. Wieliczko, The technology of precision casting of titanium alloys by centrifugal process, Archives of Foundry Engineering, ISSN: 1897-3310), Volume 11, Issue 3/2011, 73-80, 2011.

46-11  Daniel Einsiedler, Entwicklung einer Simulationsmethodik zur Simulation von Strömungs- und Trocknungsvorgängen bei Kernfertigungsprozessen mittels CFD (Development of a simulation methodology for simulating flow and drying operations in core production processes using CFD), MSc thesis at Technical University of Aalen in Germany (Hochschule Aalen), 2011.

44-11  Bin Zhang and Craig Shaber, Aluminum Ingot Thermal Stress Development Modeling of the Wagstaff® EpsilonTM Rolling Ingot DC Casting System during the Start-up Phase, Materials Science Forum Vol. 693 (2011) pp 196-207, © 2011 Trans Tech Publications, July, 2011.

43-11 Vu Nguyen, Patrick Rohan, John Grandfield, Alex Levin, Kevin Naidoo, Kurt Oswald, Guillaume Girard, Ben Harker, and Joe Rea, Implementation of CASTfill low-dross pouring system for ingot casting, Materials Science Forum Vol. 693 (2011) pp 227-234, © 2011 Trans Tech Publications, July, 2011.

40-11  A. Starobin, D. Goettsch, M. Walker, D. Burch, Gas Pressure in Aluminum Block Water Jacket Cores, © 2011 American Foundry Society, International Journal of Metalcasting/Summer 2011

37-11 Ferencz Peti, Lucian Grama, Analyze of the Possible Causes of Porosity Type Defects in Aluminum High Pressure Diecast Parts, Scientific Bulletin of the Petru Maior University of Targu Mures, Vol. 8 (XXV) no. 1, 2011, ISSN 1841-9267

31-11  Johannes Hartmann, André Trepper, Carolin Körner, Aluminum Integral Foams with Near-Microcellular Structure, Advanced Engineering Materials, 13: n/a. doi: 10.1002/adem.201100035, June 2011.

27-11  A. Pari, Optimization of HPDC Process using Flow Simulation Case Studies, Die Casting Engineer, July 2011

26-11    A. Reikher, H. Gerber, Calculation of the Die Cast Parameters of the Thin Wall Aluminum Die Casting Part, Die Casting Engineer, July 2011

21-11 Thang Nguyen, Vu Nguyen, Morris Murray, Gary Savage, John Carrig, Modelling Die Filling in Ultra-Thin Aluminium Castings, Materials Science Forum (Volume 690), Light Metals Technology V, pp 107-111, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.690.107, June 2011.

19-11 Jon Spangenberg, Cem Celal Tutum, Jesper Henri Hattel, Nicolas Roussel, Metter Rica Geiker, Optimization of Casting Process Parameters for Homogeneous Aggregate Distribution in Self-Compacting Concrete: A Feasibility Study, © IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation, 2011, New Orleans, USA

16-11  A. Starobin, C.W. Hirt, H. Lang, and M. Todte, Core Drying Simulation and Validations, AFS Proceedings 2011, © American Foundry Society, Presented at the 115th Metalcasting Congress, Schaumburg, Illinois, April 2011.

15-11  J. J. Hernández-Ortega, R. Zamora, J. López, and F. Faura, Numerical Analysis of Air Pressure Effects on the Flow Pattern during the Filling of a Vertical Die Cavity, AIP Conf. Proc., Volume 1353, pp. 1238-1243, The 14th International Esaform Conference on Material Forming: Esaform 2011; doi:10.1063/1.3589686, May 2011. Available online.

10-11 Abbas A. Khalaf and Sumanth Shankar, Favorable Environment for Nondentric Morphology in Controlled Diffusion Solidification, DOI: 10.1007/s11661-011-0641-z, © The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2011, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, March 11, 2011.

08-11 Hai Peng Li, Chun Yong Liang, Li Hui Wang, Hong Shui Wang, Numerical Simulation of Casting Process for Gray Iron Butterfly Valve, Advanced Materials Research, 189-193, 260, February 2011.

04-11  C.W. Hirt, Predicting Core Shooting, Drying and Defect Development, Foundry Management & Technology, January 2011.

76-10  Zhizhong Sun, Henry Hu, Alfred Yu, Numerical Simulation and Experimental Study of Squeeze Casting Magnesium Alloy AM50, Magnesium Technology 2010, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & ExhibitionFebruary 14-18, 2010, Seattle, WA.

68-10  A. Reikher, H. Gerber, K.M. Pillai, T.-C. Jen, Natural Convection—An Overlooked Phenomenon of the Solidification Process, Die Casting Engineer, January 2010

54-10    Andrea Bernardoni, Andrea Borsi, Stefano Mascetti, Alessandro Incognito and Matteo Corrado, Fonderia Leonardo aveva ragione! L’enorme cavallo dedicato a Francesco Sforza era materialmente realizzabile, A&C – Analisis e Calcolo, Giugno 2010. In  Italian.

48-10  J. J. Hernández-Ortega, R. Zamora, J. Palacios, J. López and F. Faura, An Experimental and Numerical Study of Flow Patterns and Air Entrapment Phenomena During the Filling of a Vertical Die Cavity, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng., October 2010, Volume 132, Issue 5, 05101, doi:10.1115/1.4002535.

47-10  A.V. Chaikin, I.N. Volnov, and V.A. Chaikin, Development of Dispersible Mixed Inoculant Compositions Using the FLOW-3D Program, Liteinoe Proizvodstvo, October, 2010, in Russian.

42-10  H. Lakshmi, M.C. Vinay Kumar, Raghunath, P. Kumar, V. Ramanarayanan, K.S.S. Murthy, P. Dutta, Induction reheating of A356.2 aluminum alloy and thixocasting as automobile component, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 20(20101) s961-s967.

41-10  Pamela J. Waterman, Understanding Core-Gas Defects, Desktop Engineering, October 2010. Available online at Desktop Engineering. Also published in the Foundry Trade Journal, November 2010.

39-10  Liu Zheng, Jia Yingying, Mao Pingli, Li Yang, Wang Feng, Wang Hong, Zhou Le, Visualization of Die Casting Magnesium Alloy Steering Bracket, Special Casting & Nonferrous Alloys, ISSN: 1001-2249, CN: 42-1148/TG, 2010-04. In Chinese.

37-10  Morris Murray, Lars Feldager Hansen, and Carl Reinhardt, I Have Defects – Now What, Die Casting Engineer, September 2010

36-10  Stefano Mascetti, Using Flow Analysis Software to Optimize Piston Velocity for an HPDC Process, Die Casting Engineer, September 2010. Also available in Italian: Ottimizzare la velocita del pistone in pressofusione.  A & C, Analisi e Calcolo, Anno XII, n. 42, Gennaio 2011, ISSN 1128-3874.

32-10  Guan Hai Yan, Sheng Dun Zhao, Zheng Hui Sha, Parameters Optimization of Semisolid Diecasting Process for Air-Conditioner’s Triple Valve in HPb59-1 Alloy, Advanced Materials Research (Volumes 129 – 131), Vol. Material and Manufacturing Technology, pp. 936-941, DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.129-131.936, August 2010.

29-10 Zheng Peng, Xu Jun, Zhang Zhifeng, Bai Yuelong, and Shi Likai, Numerical Simulation of Filling of Rheo-diecasting A357 Aluminum Alloy, Special Casting & Nonferrous Alloys, DOI: CNKI:SUN:TZZZ.0.2010-01-024, 2010.

27-10 For an Aerospace Diecasting, Littler Uses Simulation to Reveal Defects, and Win a New Order, Foundry Management & Technology, July 2010

23-10 Michael R. Barkhudarov, Minimizing Air Entrainment, The Canadian Die Caster, June 2010

15-10 David H. Kirkwood, Michel Suery, Plato Kapranos, Helen V. Atkinson, and Kenneth P. Young, Semi-solid Processing of Alloys, 2010, XII, 172 p. 103 illus., 19 in color., Hardcover ISBN: 978-3-642-00705-7.

09-10  Shannon Wetzel, Fullfilling Da Vinci’s Dream, Modern Casting, April 2010.

08-10 B.I. Semenov, K.M. Kushtarov, Semi-solid Manufacturing of Castings, New Industrial Technologies, Publication of Moscow State Technical University n.a. N.E. Bauman, 2009 (in Russian)

07-10 Carl Reilly, Development Of Quantitative Casting Quality Assessment Criteria Using Process Modelling, thesis: The University of Birmingham, March 2010 (Available upon request)

06-10 A. Pari, Optimization of HPDC Process using Flow Simulation – Case Studies, CastExpo ’10, NADCA, Orlando, Florida, March 2010

05-10 M.C. Carter, S. Palit, and M. Littler, Characterizing Flow Losses Occurring in Air Vents and Ejector Pins in High Pressure Die Castings, CastExpo ’10, NADCA, Orlando, Florida, March 2010

04-10 Pamela Waterman, Simulating Porosity Factors, Foundry Management Technology, March 2010, Article available at Foundry Management Technology

03-10 C. Reilly, M.R. Jolly, N.R. Green, JC Gebelin, Assessment of Casting Filling by Modeling Surface Entrainment Events Using CFD, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition (Jim Evans Honorary Symposium), Seattle, Washington, USA, February 14-18, 2010

02-10 P. Väyrynen, S. Wang, J. Laine and S.Louhenkilpi, Control of Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Inclusions in Continuous Casting – CFD and Neural Network Studies, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition (Jim Evans Honorary Symposium), Seattle, Washington, USA, February 14-18, 2010

60-09   Somlak Wannarumon, and Marco Actis Grande, Comparisons of Computer Fluid Dynamic Software Programs applied to Jewelry Investment Casting Process, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 55 2009.

59-09   Marco Actis Grande and Somlak Wannarumon, Numerical Simulation of Investment Casting of Gold Jewelry: Experiments and Validations, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol:3 2009-07-24

56-09  Jozef Kasala, Ondrej Híreš, Rudolf Pernis, Start-up Phase Modeling of Semi Continuous Casting Process of Brass Billets, Metal 2009, 19.-21.5.2009

51-09  In-Ting Hong, Huan-Chien Tung, Chun-Hao Chiu and Hung-Shang Huang, Effect of Casting Parameters on Microstructure and Casting Quality of Si-Al Alloy for Vacuum Sputtering, China Steel Technical Report, No. 22, pp. 33-40, 2009.

42-09  P. Väyrynen, S. Wang, S. Louhenkilpi and L. Holappa, Modeling and Removal of Inclusions in Continuous Casting, Materials Science & Technology 2009 Conference & Exhibition, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, October 25-29, 2009

41-09 O.Smirnov, P.Väyrynen, A.Kravchenko and S.Louhenkilpi, Modern Methods of Modeling Fluid Flow and Inclusions Motion in Tundish Bath – General View, Proceedings of Steelsim 2009 – 3rd International Conference on Simulation and Modelling of Metallurgical Processes in Steelmaking, Leoben, Austria, September 8-10, 2009

21-09 A. Pari, Case Studies – Optimization of HPDC Process Using Flow Simulation, Die Casting Engineer, July 2009

20-09 M. Sirvio, M. Wos, Casting directly from a computer model by using advanced simulation software, FLOW-3D Cast, Archives of Foundry Engineering Volume 9, Issue 1/2009, 79-82

19-09 Andrei Starobin, C.W. Hirt, D. Goettsch, A Model for Binder Gas Generation and Transport in Sand Cores and Molds, Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Solidification Processes XII, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Minerals Society), June 2009

11-09 Michael Barkhudarov, Minimizing Air Entrainment in a Shot Sleeve during Slow-Shot Stage, Die Casting Engineer (The North American Die Casting Association ISSN 0012-253X), May 2009

10-09 A. Reikher, H. Gerber, Application of One-Dimensional Numerical Simulation to Optimize Process Parameters of a Thin-Wall Casting in High Pressure Die Casting, Die Casting Engineer (The North American Die Casting Association ISSN 0012-253X), May 2009

7-09 Andrei Starobin, Simulation of Core Gas Evolution and Flow, presented at the North American Die Casting Association – 113th Metalcasting Congress, April 7-10, 2009, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

6-09 A.Pari, Optimization of HPDC PROCESS: Case Studies, North American Die Casting Association – 113th Metalcasting Congress, April 7-10, 2009, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

2-09 C. Reilly, N.R. Green and M.R. Jolly, Oxide Entrainment Structures in Horizontal Running Systems, TMS 2009, San Francisco, California, February 2009

30-08 I.N.Volnov, Computer Modeling of Casting of Pipe Fittings, © 2008, Pipe Fittings, 5 (38), 2008. Russian version

28-08 A.V.Chaikin, I.N.Volnov, V.A.Chaikin, Y.A.Ukhanov, N.R.Petrov, Analysis of the Efficiency of Alloy Modifiers Using Statistics and Modeling, © 2008, Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), October, 2008

27-08 P. Scarber, Jr., H. Littleton, Simulating Macro-Porosity in Aluminum Lost Foam Castings, American Foundry Society, © 2008, AFS Lost Foam Conference, Asheville, North Carolina, October, 2008

25-08 FMT Staff, Forecasting Core Gas Pressures with Computer Simulation, Foundry Management and Technology, October 28, 2008 © 2008 Penton Media, Inc. Online article

24-08 Core and Mold Gas Evolution, Foundry Management and Technology, January 24, 2008 (excerpted from the FM&T May 2007 issue) © 2008 Penton Media, Inc.

22-08 Mark Littler, Simulation Eliminates Die Casting Scrap, Modern Casting/September 2008

21-08 X. Chen, D. Penumadu, Permeability Measurement and Numerical Modeling for Refractory Porous Materials, AFS Transactions © 2008 American Foundry Society, CastExpo ’08, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

20-08 Rolf Krack, Using Solidification Simulations for Optimising Die Cooling Systems, FTJ July/August 2008

19-08 Mark Littler, Simulation Software Eliminates Die Casting Scrap, ECS Casting Innovations, July/August 2008

13-08 T. Yoshimura, K. Yano, T. Fukui, S. Yamamoto, S. Nishido, M. Watanabe and Y. Nemoto, Optimum Design of Die Casting Plunger Tip Considering Air Entrainment, Proceedings of 10th Asian Foundry Congress (AFC10), Nagoya, Japan, May 2008

08-08 Stephen Instone, Andreas Buchholz and Gerd-Ulrich Gruen, Inclusion Transport Phenomena in Casting Furnaces, Light Metals 2008, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2008

07-08 P. Scarber, Jr., H. Littleton, Simulating Macro-Porosity in Aluminum Lost Foam Casting, AFS Transactions 2008 © American Foundry Society, CastExpo ’08, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

06-08 A. Reikher, H. Gerber and A. Starobin, Multi-Stage Plunger Deceleration System, CastExpo ’08, NADCA, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

05-08 Amol Palekar, Andrei Starobin, Alexander Reikher, Die-casting end-of-fill and drop forge viscometer flow transients examined with a coupled-motion numerical model, 68th World Foundry Congress, Chennai, India, February 2008

03-08 Petri J. Väyrynen, Sami K. Vapalahti and Seppo J. Louhenkilpi, On Validation of Mathematical Fluid Flow Models for Simulation of Tundish Water Models and Industrial Examples, AISTech 2008, May 2008

53-07   A. Kermanpur, Sh. Mahmoudi and A. Hajipour, Three-dimensional Numerical Simulation of Metal Flow and Solidification in the Multi-cavity Casting Moulds of Automotive Components, International Journal of Iron & Steel Society of Iran, Article 2, Volume 4, Issue 1, Summer and Autumn 2007, pages 8-15.

36-07 Duque Mesa A. F., Herrera J., Cruz L.J., Fernández G.P. y Martínez H.V., Caracterización Defectológica de Piezas Fundida por Lost Foam Casting Mediante Simulación Numérica, 8° Congreso Iberoamericano de Ingenieria Mecanica, Cusco, Peru, 23 al 25 de Octubre de 2007 (in Spanish)

27-07 A.Y. Korotchenko, A.M. Zarubin, I.A.Korotchenko, Modeling of High Pressure Die Casting Filling, Russian Foundryman, December 2007, pp 15-19. (in Russian)

26-07 I.N. Volnov, Modeling of Casting Processes with Variable Geometry, Russian Foundryman, November 2007, pp 27-30. (in Russian)

16-07 P. Väyrynen, S. Vapalahti, S. Louhenkilpi, L. Chatburn, M. Clark, T. Wagner, Tundish Flow Model Tuning and Validation – Steady State and Transient Casting Situations, STEELSIM 2007, Graz/Seggau, Austria, September 12-14 2007

11-07 Marco Actis Grande, Computer Simulation of the Investment Casting Process – Widening of the Filling Step, Santa Fe Symposium on Jewelry Manufacturing Technology, May 2007

09-07 Alexandre Reikher and Michael Barkhudarov, Casting: An Analytical Approach, Springer, 1st edition, August 2007, Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-84628-849-4. U.S. Order Form; Europe Order Form.

07-07 I.N. Volnov, Casting Modeling Systems – Current State, Problems and Perspectives, (in Russian), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), June 2007

05-07 A.N. Turchin, D.G. Eskin, and L. Katgerman, Solidification under Forced-Flow Conditions in a Shallow Cavity, DOI: 10.1007/s1161-007-9183-9, © The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2007

04-07 A.N. Turchin, M. Zuijderwijk, J. Pool, D.G. Eskin, and L. Katgerman, Feathery grain growth during solidification under forced flow conditions, © Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1016/j.actamat.2007.02.030, April 2007

03-07 S. Kuyucak, Sponsored Research – Clean Steel Casting Production—Evaluation of Laboratory Castings, Transactions of the American Foundry Society, Volume 115, 111th Metalcasting Congress, May 2007

02-07 Fu-Yuan Hsu, Mark R. Jolly and John Campbell, The Design of L-Shaped Runners for Gravity Casting, Shape Casting: 2nd International Symposium, Edited by Paul N. Crepeau, Murat Tiryakioðlu and John Campbell, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), Orlando, FL, Feb 2007

30-06 X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, Simulation of EPS foam decomposition in the lost foam casting process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 182 (2007) 333–342, © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

25-06 Michael Barkhudarov and Gengsheng Wei, Modeling Casting on the Move, Modern Casting, August 2006; Modeling of Casting Processes with Variable Geometry, Russian Foundryman, December 2007, pp 10-15. (in Russian)

24-06 P. Scarber, Jr. and C.E. Bates, Simulation of Core Gas Production During Mold Fill, © 2006 American Foundry Society

7-06 M.Y.Smirnov, Y.V.Golenkov, Manufacturing of Cast Iron Bath Tubs Castings using Vacuum-Process in Russia, Russia’s Foundryman, July 2006. In Russian.

6-06 M. Barkhudarov, and G. Wei, Modeling of the Coupled Motion of Rigid Bodies in Liquid Metal, Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes – XI, May 28 – June 2, 2006, Opio, France, eds. Ch.-A. Gandin and M. Bellet, pp 71-78, 2006.

2-06 J.-C. Gebelin, M.R. Jolly and F.-Y. Hsu, ‘Designing-in’ Controlled Filling Using Numerical Simulation for Gravity Sand Casting of Aluminium Alloys, Int. J. Cast Met. Res., 2006, Vol.19 No.1

1-06 Michael Barkhudarov, Using Simulation to Control Microporosity Reduces Die Iterations, Die Casting Engineer, January 2006, pp. 52-54

30-05 H. Xue, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, R.A. Miller, Modeling Dynamic Cavity Pressure and Impact Spike in Die Casting, Cast Expo ’05, April 16-19, 2005

22-05 Blas Melissari & Stavros A. Argyropoulous, Measurement of Magnitude and Direction of Velocity in High-Temperature Liquid Metals; Part I, Mathematical Modeling, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Volume 36B, October 2005, pp. 691-700

21-05 M.R. Jolly, State of the Art Review of Use of Modeling Software for Casting, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 337-346

20-05 J-C Gebelin, M.R. Jolly & F-Y Hsu, ‘Designing-in’ Controlled Filling Using Numerical Simulation for Gravity Sand Casting of Aluminium Alloys, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 355-364

19-05 F-Y Hsu, M.R. Jolly & J Campbell, Vortex Gate Design for Gravity Castings, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 73-82

18-05 M.R. Jolly, Modelling the Investment Casting Process: Problems and Successes, Japanese Foundry Society, JFS, Tokyo, Sept. 2005

13-05 Xiaogang Yang, Xiaobing Huang, Xiaojun Dai, John Campbell and Joe Tatler, Numerical Modelling of the Entrainment of Oxide Film Defects in Filling of Aluminium Alloy Castings, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 17 (6), 2004, 321-331

10-05 Carlos Evaristo Esparza, Martha P. Guerro-Mata, Roger Z. Ríos-Mercado, Optimal Design of Gating Systems by Gradient Search Methods, Computational Materials Science, October 2005

6-05 Birgit Hummler-Schaufler, Fritz Hirning, Jurgen Schaufler, A World First for Hatz Diesel and Schaufler Tooling, Die Casting Engineer, May 2005, pp. 18-21

4-05 Rolf Krack, The W35 Topic—A World First, Die Casting World, March 2005, pp. 16-17

3-05 Joerg Frei, Casting Simulations Speed Up Development, Die Casting World, March 2005, p. 14

2-05 David Goettsch and Michael Barkhudarov, Analysis and Optimization of the Transient Stage of Stopper-Rod Pour, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 2005

36-04  Ik Min Park, Il Dong Choi, Yong Ho Park, Development of Light-Weight Al Scroll Compressor for Car Air Conditioner, Materials Science Forum, Designing, Processing and Properties of Advanced Engineering Materials, 449-452, 149, March 2004.

32-04 D.H. Kirkwood and P.J Ward, Numerical Modelling of Semi-Solid Flow under Processing Conditions, steel research int. 75 (2004), No. 8/9

30-04 Haijing Mao, A Numerical Study of Externally Solidified Products in the Cold Chamber Die Casting Process, thesis: The Ohio State University, 2004 (Available upon request)

28-04 Z. Cao, Z. Yang, and X.L. Chen, Three-Dimensional Simulation of Transient GMA Weld Pool with Free Surface, Supplement to the Welding Journal, June 2004.

23-04 State of the Art Use of Computational Modelling in the Foundry Industry, 3rd International Conference Computational Modelling of Materials III, Sicily, Italy, June 2004, Advances in Science and Technology,  Eds P. Vincenzini & A Lami, Techna Group Srl, Italy, ISBN: 88-86538-46-4, Part B, pp 479-490

22-04 Jerry Fireman, Computer Simulation Helps Reduce Scrap, Die Casting Engineer, May 2004, pp. 46-49

21-04 Joerg Frei, Simulation—A Safe and Quick Way to Good Components, Aluminium World, Volume 3, Issue 2, pp. 42-43

20-04 J.-C. Gebelin, M.R. Jolly, A. M. Cendrowicz, J. Cirre and S. Blackburn, Simulation of Die Filling for the Wax Injection Process – Part II Numerical Simulation, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Volume 35B, August 2004

14-04 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov, Charles H. Sherwin, and Ruel A. Overfelt, Hot Distortion Studies In Phenolic Urethane Cold Box System, American Foundry Society, 108th Casting Congress, June 12-15, 2004, Rosemont, IL, USA

13-04 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov and Ruel A. Overfelt, First V-Process Casting of Magnesium, American Foundry Society, 108th Casting Congress, June 12-15, 2004, Rosemont, IL, USA

5-04 C. Schlumpberger & B. Hummler-Schaufler, Produktentwicklung auf hohem Niveau (Product Development on a High Level), Druckguss Praxis, January 2004, pp 39-42 (in German).

3-04 Charles Bates, Dealing with Defects, Foundry Management and Technology, February 2004, pp 23-25

1-04 Laihua Wang, Thang Nguyen, Gary Savage and Cameron Davidson, Thermal and Flow Modeling of Ladling and Injection in High Pressure Die Casting Process, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, vol. 16 No 4 2003, pp 409-417

2-03 J-C Gebelin, AM Cendrowicz, MR Jolly, Modeling of the Wax Injection Process for the Investment Casting Process – Prediction of Defects, presented at the Third International Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Minerals and Process Industries, December 10-12, 2003, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 415-420

29-03 C. W. Hirt, Modeling Shrinkage Induced Micro-porosity, Flow Science Technical Note (FSI-03-TN66)

28-03 Thixoforming at the University of Sheffield, Diecasting World, September 2003, pp 11-12

26-03 William Walkington, Gas Porosity-A Guide to Correcting the Problems, NADCA Publication: 516

22-03 G F Yao, C W Hirt, and M Barkhudarov, Development of a Numerical Approach for Simulation of Sand Blowing and Core Formation, in Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Process-X”, Ed. By Stefanescu et al pp. 633-639, 2003

21-03 E F Brush Jr, S P Midson, W G Walkington, D T Peters, J G Cowie, Porosity Control in Copper Rotor Die Castings, NADCA Indianapolis Convention Center, Indianapolis, IN September 15-18, 2003, T03-046

12-03 J-C Gebelin & M.R. Jolly, Modeling Filters in Light Alloy Casting Processes,  Trans AFS, 2002, 110, pp. 109-120

11-03 M.R. Jolly, Casting Simulation – How Well Do Reality and Virtual Casting Match – A State of the Art Review, Intl. J. Cast Metals Research, 2002, 14, pp. 303-313

10-03 Gebelin., J-C and Jolly, M.R., Modeling of the Investment Casting Process, Journal of  Materials Processing Tech., Vol. 135/2-3, pp. 291 – 300

9-03 Cox, M, Harding, R.A. and Campbell, J., Optimised Running System Design for Bottom Filled Aluminium Alloy 2L99 Investment Castings, J. Mat. Sci. Tech., May 2003, Vol. 19, pp. 613-625

8-03 Von Alexander Schrey and Regina Reek, Numerische Simulation der Kernherstellung, (Numerical Simulation of Core Blowing), Giesserei, June 2003, pp. 64-68 (in German)

7-03 J. Zuidema Jr., L Katgerman, Cyclone separation of particles in aluminum DC Casting, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 607-614

6-03 Jean-Christophe Gebelin and Mark Jolly, Numerical Modeling of Metal Flow Through Filters, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 431-438

5-03 N.W. Lai, W.D. Griffiths and J. Campbell, Modelling of the Potential for Oxide Film Entrainment in Light Metal Alloy Castings, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 415-422

21-02 Boris Lukezic, Case History: Process Modeling Solves Die Design Problems, Modern Casting, February 2003, P 59

20-02 C.W. Hirt and M.R. Barkhudarov, Predicting Defects in Lost Foam Castings, Modern Casting, December 2002, pp 31-33

19-02 Mark Jolly, Mike Cox, Ric Harding, Bill Griffiths and John Campbell, Quiescent Filling Applied to Investment Castings, Modern Casting, December 2002 pp. 36-38

18-02 Simulation Helps Overcome Challenges of Thin Wall Magnesium Diecasting, Foundry Management and Technology, October 2002, pp 13-15

17-02 G Messmer, Simulation of a Thixoforging Process of Aluminum Alloys with FLOW-3D, Institute for Metal Forming Technology, University of Stuttgart

16-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Computer Simulation of Lost Foam Process, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 319-324

15-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Computer Simulation of Inclusion Tracking, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 341-346

14-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Advanced Simulation of the Flow and Heat Transfer of an Alternator Housing, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 219-228

8-02 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov, and Ruel A. Overfelt, Experimental and Numerical Study of Bonded Sand-Air Two-Phase Flow in PUA Process, Auburn University, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-091, Kansas City, MO

7-02 A Habibollah Zadeh, and J Campbell, Metal Flow Through a Filter System, University of Birmingham, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-020, Kansas City, MO

6-02 Phil Ward, and Helen Atkinson, Final Report for EPSRC Project: Modeling of Thixotropic Flow of Metal Alloys into a Die, GR/M17334/01, March 2002, University of Sheffield

5-02 S. I. Bakhtiyarov and R. A. Overfelt, Numerical and Experimental Study of Aluminum Casting in Vacuum-sealed Step Molding, Auburn University, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-050, Kansas City, MO

4-02 J. C. Gebelin and M. R. Jolly, Modelling Filters in Light Alloy Casting Processes, University of Birmingham, 2002 American Foundry Society AFS Transactions 02-079, Kansas City, MO

3-02 Mark Jolly, Mike Cox, Jean-Christophe Gebelin, Sam Jones, and Alex Cendrowicz, Fundamentals of Investment Casting (FOCAST), Modelling the Investment Casting Process, Some preliminary results from the UK Research Programme, IRC in Materials, University of Birmingham, UK, AFS2001

49-01   Hua Bai and Brian G. Thomas, Bubble formation during horizontal gas injection into downward-flowing liquid, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 1143-1159, 2001. doi.org/10.1007/s11663-001-0102-y

45-01 Jan Zuidema; Laurens Katgerman; Ivo J. Opstelten;Jan M. Rabenberg, Secondary Cooling in DC Casting: Modelling and Experimental Results, TMS 2001, New Orleans, Louisianna, February 11-15, 2001

43-01 James Andrew Yurko, Fluid Flow Behavior of Semi-Solid Aluminum at High Shear Rates,Ph.D. thesis; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2001. Abstract only; full thesis available at http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/8451 (for a fee).

33-01 Juang, S.H., CAE Application on Design of Die Casting Dies, 2001 Conference on CAE Technology and Application, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan, November 2001, (article in Chinese with English-language abstract)

32-01 Juang, S.H. and C. M. Wang, Effect of Feeding Geometry on Flow Characteristics of Magnesium Die Casting by Numerical Analysis, The Preceedings of 6th FADMA Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, July 2001, Chinese language with English abstract

26-01 C. W. Hirt., Predicting Defects in Lost Foam Castings, December 13, 2001

21-01 P. Scarber Jr., Using Liquid Free Surface Areas as a Predictor of Reoxidation Tendency in Metal Alloy Castings, presented at the Steel Founders’ Society of American, Technical and Operating Conference, October 2001

20-01 P. Scarber Jr., J. Griffin, and C. E. Bates, The Effect of Gating and Pouring Practice on Reoxidation of Steel Castings, presented at the Steel Founders’ Society of American, Technical and Operating Conference, October 2001

19-01 L. Wang, T. Nguyen, M. Murray, Simulation of Flow Pattern and Temperature Profile in the Shot Sleeve of a High Pressure Die Casting Process, CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, Presented by North American Die Casting Association, Oct 29-Nov 1, 2001, Cincinnati, To1-014

18-01 Rajiv Shivpuri, Venkatesh Sankararaman, Kaustubh Kulkarni, An Approach at Optimizing the Ingate Design for Reducing Filling and Shrinkage Defects, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, Presented by North American Die Casting Association, Oct 29-Nov 1, 2001, Cincinnati, TO1-052

5-01 Michael Barkhudarov, Simulation Helps Overcome Challenges of Thin Wall Magnesium Diecasting, Diecasting World, March 2001, pp. 5-6

2-01 J. Grindling, Customized CFD Codes to Simulate Casting of Thermosets in Full 3D, Electrical Manufacturing and Coil Winding 2000 Conference, October 31-November 2, 20

20-00 Richard Schuhmann, John Carrig, Thang Nguyen, Arne Dahle, Comparison of Water Analogue Modelling and Numerical Simulation Using Real-Time X-Ray Flow Data in Gravity Die Casting, Australian Die Casting Association Die Casting 2000 Conference, September 3-6, 2000, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

15-00 M. Sirvio, Vainola, J. Vartianinen, M. Vuorinen, J. Orkas, and S. Devenyi, Fluid Flow Analysis for Designing Gating of Aluminum Castings, Proc. NADCA Conf., Rosemont, IL, Nov 6-8, 1999

14-00 X. Yang, M. Jolly, and J. Campbell, Reduction of Surface Turbulence during Filling of Sand Castings Using a Vortex-flow Runner, Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August 2000

13-00 H. S. H. Lo and J. Campbell, The Modeling of Ceramic Foam Filters, Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August 2000

12-00 M. R. Jolly, H. S. H. Lo, M. Turan and J. Campbell, Use of Simulation Tools in the Practical Development of a Method for Manufacture of Cast Iron Camshafts,” Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August, 2000

14-99 J Koke, and M Modigell, Time-Dependent Rheological Properties of Semi-solid Metal Alloys, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Aachen University of Technology, Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials 3: 15-30, 1999

12-99 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, Schneider, Wolfgang, Ray, Steven, Marthinusen, Jan-Olaf, Recent Improvements in Ceramic Foam Filter Design by Coupled Heat and Fluid Flow Modeling, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1999, pp. 1041-1047

10-99 Bongcheol Park and Jerald R. Brevick, Computer Flow Modeling of Cavity Pre-fill Effects in High Pressure Die Casting, NADCA Proceedings, Cleveland T99-011, November, 1999

8-99 Brad Guthrie, Simulation Reduces Aluminum Die Casting Cost by Reducing Volume, Die Casting Engineer Magazine, September/October 1999, pp. 78-81

7-99 Fred L. Church, Virtual Reality Predicts Cast Metal Flow, Modern Metals, September, 1999, pp. 67F-J

19-98 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, & Schneider, Wolfgang, Numerical Modeling of Fluid Flow Phenomena in the Launder-integrated Tool Within Casting Unit Development, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1998, pp. 1175-1182

18-98 X. Yang & J. Campbell, Liquid Metal Flow in a Pouring Basin, Int. J. Cast Metals Res, 1998, 10, pp. 239-253

15-98 R. Van Tol, Mould Filling of Horizontal Thin-Wall Castings, Delft University Press, The Netherlands, 1998

14-98 J. Daughtery and K. A. Williams, Thermal Modeling of Mold Material Candidates for Copper Pressure Die Casting of the Induction Motor Rotor Structure, Proc. Int’l Workshop on Permanent Mold Casting of Copper-Based Alloys, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Oct. 15-16, 1998

10-98 C. W. Hirt, and M.R. Barkhudarov, Lost Foam Casting Simulation with Defect Prediction, Flow Science Inc, presented at Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VIII Conference, June 7-12, 1998, Catamaran Hotel, San Diego, California

9-98 M. R. Barkhudarov and C. W. Hirt, Tracking Defects, Flow Science Inc, presented at the 1st International Aluminum Casting Technology Symposium, 12-14 October 1998, Rosemont, IL

5-98 J. Righi, Computer Simulation Helps Eliminate Porosity, Die Casting Management Magazine, pp. 36-38, January 1998

3-98 P. Kapranos, M. R. Barkhudarov, D. H. Kirkwood, Modeling of Structural Breakdown during Rapid Compression of Semi-Solid Alloy Slugs, Dept. Engineering Materials, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, U.K. and Flow Science Inc, USA, Presented at the 5th International Conference Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, 23-25 June 1998

1-98 U. Jerichow, T. Altan, and P. R. Sahm, Semi Solid Metal Forming of Aluminum Alloys-The Effect of Process Variables Upon Material Flow, Cavity Fill and Mechanical Properties, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, published in Die Casting Engineer, p. 26, Jan/Feb 1998

8-97 Michael Barkhudarov, High Pressure Die Casting Simulation Using FLOW-3D, Die Casting Engineer, 1997

15-97 M. R. Barkhudarov, Advanced Simulation of the Flow and Heat Transfer Process in Simultaneous Engineering, Flow Science report, presented at the Casting 1997 – International ADI and Simulation Conference, Helsinki, Finland, May 28-30, 1997

14-97 M. Ranganathan and R. Shivpuri, Reducing Scrap and Increasing Die Life in Low Pressure Die Casting through Flow Simulation and Accelerated Testing, Dept. Welding and Systems Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, presented at 19th International Die Casting Congress & Exposition, November 3-6, 1997

13-97 J. Koke, Modellierung und Simulation der Fließeigenschaften teilerstarrter Metallegierungen, Livt Information, Institut für Verfahrenstechnik, RWTH Aachen, October 1997

10-97 J. P. Greene and J. O. Wilkes, Numerical Analysis of Injection Molding of Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics – Part 2 Fiber Orientation, Body-in-White Center, General Motors Corp. and Dept. Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 37, No. 6, June 1997

9-97 J. P. Greene and J. O. Wilkes, Numerical Analysis of Injection Molding of Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics. Part 1 – Injection Pressures and Flow, Manufacturing Center, General Motors Corp. and Dept. Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 37, No. 3, March 1997

8-97 H. Grazzini and D. Nesa, Thermophysical Properties, Casting Simulation and Experiments for a Stainless Steel, AT Systemes (Renault) report, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

7-97 R. Van Tol, L. Katgerman and H. E. A. Van den Akker, Horizontal Mould Filling of a Thin Wall Aluminum Casting, Laboratory of Materials report, Delft University, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

6-97 M. R. Barkhudarov, Is Fluid Flow Important for Predicting Solidification, Flow Science report, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

22-96 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich & Schneider, Wolfgang, 3-D Modeling of the Start-up Phase of DC Casting of Sheet Ingots, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1996, pp. 971-981

9-96 M. R. Barkhudarov and C. W. Hirt, Thixotropic Flow Effects under Conditions of Strong Shear, Flow Science report FSI96-00-2, to be presented at the “Materials Week ’96” TMS Conference, Cincinnati, OH, 7-10 October 1996

4-96 C. W. Hirt, A Computational Model for the Lost Foam Process, Flow Science final report, February 1996 (FSI-96-57-R2)

3-96 M. R. Barkhudarov, C. L. Bronisz, C. W. Hirt, Three-Dimensional Thixotropic Flow Model, Flow Science report, FSI-96-00-1, published in the proceedings of (pp. 110- 114) and presented at the 4th International Conference on Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, The University of Sheffield, 19-21 June 1996

1-96 M. R. Barkhudarov, J. Beech, K. Chang, and S. B. Chin, Numerical Simulation of Metal/Mould Interfacial Heat Transfer in Casting, Dept. Mech. & Process Engineering, Dept. Engineering Materials, University of Sheffield and Flow Science Inc, 9th Int. Symposium on Transport Phenomena in Thermal-Fluid Engineering, June 25-28, 1996, Singapore

11-95 Barkhudarov, M. R., Hirt, C.W., Casting Simulation Mold Filling and Solidification-Benchmark Calculations Using FLOW-3D, Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, pp 935-946

10-95 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, & Schneider, Wolfgang, Optimal Design of a Distribution Pan for Level Pour Casting, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1995, pp. 1061-1070

9-95 E. Masuda, I. Itoh, K. Haraguchi, Application of Mold Filling Simulation to Die Casting Processes, Honda Engineering Co., Ltd., Tochigi, Japan, presented at the Modelling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1995

6-95 K. Venkatesan, Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Process Parameters on the Erosive Wear of Die Casting Dies, presented for Ph.D. degree at Ohio State University, 1995

5-95 J. Righi, A. F. LaCamera, S. A. Jones, W. G. Truckner, T. N. Rouns, Integration of Experience and Simulation Based Understanding in the Die Design Process, Alcoa Technical Center, Alcoa Center, PA 15069, presented by the North American Die Casting Association, 1995

2-95 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Simulation and Comparison with Water Modeling Studies of the Inertia Dominated Cavity Filling in Die Casting, NUMIFORM, 1995

1-95 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Gate Velocity and Gate Size on the Quality of Die Casting Parts, NAMRC, 1995.

15-94 D. Liang, Y. Bayraktar, S. A. Moir, M. Barkhudarov, and H. Jones, Primary Silicon Segregation During Isothermal Holding of Hypereutectic AI-18.3%Si Alloy in the Freezing Range, Dept. of Engr. Materials, U. of Sheffield, Metals and Materials, February 1994

13-94 Deniece Korzekwa and Paul Dunn, A Combined Experimental and Modeling Approach to Uranium Casting, Materials Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, presented at the Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting, El Dorado Hotel, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1994

12-94 R. van Tol, H. E. A. van den Akker and L. Katgerman, CFD Study of the Mould Filling of a Horizontal Thin Wall Aluminum Casting, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, HTD-Vol. 284/AMD-Vol. 182, Transport Phenomena in Solidification, ASME 1994

11-94 M. R. Barkhudarov and K. A. Williams, Simulation of ‘Surface Turbulence’ Fluid Phenomena During the Mold Filling Phase of Gravity Castings, Flow Science Technical Note #41, November 1994 (FSI-94-TN41)

10-94 M. R. Barkhudarov and S. B. Chin, Stability of a Numerical Algorithm for Gas Bubble Modelling, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K., International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, Vol. 19, 415-437 (1994)

16-93 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Simulation of Die Cavity Filling in Die Castings and an Evaluation of Process Parameters on Die Wear, Dept. of Industrial Systems Engineering, Presented by: N.A. Die Casting Association, Cleveland, Ohio, October 18-21, 1993

15-93 K. Venkatesen and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Modeling of Filling and Solidification for Improved Quality of Die Casting: A Literature Survey (Chapters II and III), Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, Report C-93-07, August 1993, Ohio State University

1-93 P-E Persson, Computer Simulation of the Solidification of a Hub Carrier for the Volvo 800 Series, AB Volvo Technological Development, Metals Laboratory, Technical Report No. LM 500014E, Jan. 1993

13-92 D. R. Korzekwa, M. A. K. Lewis, Experimentation and Simulation of Gravity Fed Lead Castings, in proceedings of a TMS Symposium on Concurrent Engineering Approach to Materials Processing, S. N. Dwivedi, A. J. Paul and F. R. Dax, eds., TMS-AIME Warrendale, p. 155 (1992)

12-92 M. A. K. Lewis, Near-Net-Shaiconpe Casting Simulation and Experimentation, MST 1992 Review, Los Alamos National Laboratory

2-92 M. R. Barkhudarov, H. You, J. Beech, S. B. Chin, D. H. Kirkwood, Validation and Development of FLOW-3D for Casting, School of Materials, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, presented at the TMS/AIME Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, March 3, 1992

1-92 D. R. Korzekwa and L. A. Jacobson, Los Alamos National Laboratory and C.W. Hirt, Flow Science Inc, Modeling Planar Flow Casting with FLOW-3D, presented at the TMS/AIME Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, March 3, 1992

12-91 R. Shivpuri, M. Kuthirakulathu, and M. Mittal, Nonisothermal 3-D Finite Difference Simulation of Cavity Filling during the Die Casting Process, Dept. Industrial and Systems Engineering, Ohio State University, presented at the 1991 Winter Annual ASME Meeting, Atlanta, GA, Dec. 1-6, 1991

3-91 C. W. Hirt, FLOW-3D Study of the Importance of Fluid Momentum in Mold Filling, presented at the 18th Annual Automotive Materials Symposium, Michigan State University, Lansing, MI, May 1-2, 1991 (FSI-91-00-2)

11-90 N. Saluja, O.J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, On the Calculation of the Electromagnetic Force Field in the Circular Stirring of Metallic Melts, accepted in J. Appl. Physics, 1990

10-90 N. Saluja, O. J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, On the Calculation of the Electromagnetic Force Field in the Circular Stirring of Metallic Molds in Continuous Castings, presented at the 6th Iron and Steel Congress of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Nagoya, Japan, October 1990

9-90 N. Saluja, O. J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, Fluid Flow in Phenomena in the Electromagnetic Stirring of Continuous Casting Systems, Part I. The Behavior of a Cylindrically Shaped, Laboratory Scale Installation, accepted for publication in Steel Research, 1990

8-89 C. W. Hirt, Gravity-Fed Casting, Flow Science Technical Note #20, July 1989 (FSI-89-TN20)

6-89 E. W. M. Hansen and F. Syvertsen, Numerical Simulation of Flow Behaviour in Moldfilling for Casting Analysis, SINTEF-Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Norway, Report No. STS20 A89001, June 1989

1-88 C. W. Hirt and R. P. Harper, Modeling Tests for Casting Processes, Flow Science report, Jan. 1988 (FSI-88-38-01)

2-87 C. W. Hirt, Addition of a Solidification/Melting Model to FLOW-3D, Flow Science report, April 1987 (FSI-87-33-1)

Lost Foam Casting Workspace, 소실모형주조

Lost Foam Casting Workspace Highlights, 소실모형주조

  • 최첨단 Foam 잔여물 추적
  • 진보된 Foam 증발 및 금속 유동 모델링
  • 응고, 다공성 및 표면 결함 분석

Workspace Overview

Lost Foam Casting Workspace(소실모형주조) 는 Lost Foam Casting에 필요한 충진, 응고 및 냉각 하위 프로세스를 시뮬레이션하는 모든 도구를 제공합니다. 각 하위 프로세스는 해석 엔지니어가 사용하기 쉬운 인터페이스를 제공하도록 맞춤화된 템플릿 디자인을 기반으로합니다.

Lost Foam Casting 의 결함은 충진 프로파일에서 추적할 수 있기 때문에  FLOW-3D  CAST 의 용탕유동 및 소실모형(foam)의 연소 시뮬레이션의 탁월한 정확도는 고품질의 Lost Foam Casting 주물을 생산하는 데 귀중한 통찰력을 제공합니다. 기포. 잔류물 형성과 같은 주입 결함은 최종 주조에서 정확하게 추적되고 처리됩니다.

Lost Foam Casting Workspace | FLOW-3D CAST
Lost Foam Residue Tracking – Filling Simulation | FLOW-3D CAST
Lost Foam Impeller Tree – Filling Simulation | FLOW-3D CAST
Lost Foam Residue Simulation | FLOW-3D CAST

PROCESSES MODELED

  • Filling
  • Solidification
  • Cooling

FLEXIBLE MESHING

  • Structured meshing for fast, easy generation
  • Multi-block meshing for localized accuracy control
  • Foam-conforming meshes for memory optimization

MOLD MODELING

  • Ceramic filters
  • Inserts – standard and porous
  • Air vents
  • Chills
  • Insulating and exothermic sleeves
  • Moving ladles and stoppers

ADVANCED SOLIDIFICATION

  • Chemistry-based solidification
  • Dimensionless Niyama criteria
  • Cooling rates, SDAS, grain size mechanical properties

FILLING ACCURACY

  • Foam/melt interface tracking
  • Gas/bubble entrapment
  • Automatic melt flow drag calculation in filters

DEFECT PREDICTION

  • Foam residue defect tracking
  • Cold shuts
  • Porosity prediction
  • Shrinkage
  • Hot spots

DYNAMIC SIMULATION CONTROL

  • Probe-controlled pouring control

COMPLETE ANALYSIS PACKAGE

  • Animations with multi-viewports – 3D, 2D, history plots, volume rendering
  • Porosity analysis tool
  • Side-by-side simulation results comparison
  • Sensors for measuring melt temperature, solid fraction
  • Particle tracers
  • Batch post-processing
  • Report generation

Gravity Die Casting Workspace, 중력주조

Gravity Die Casting Workspace Highlights, 중력주조

  • 최첨단 다이 열 관리, 동적 냉각 채널, 분무 냉각 및 열 순환
  • Ladle 주입 조건에 따라 동적 Ladle 모션이 있는 Ladle 주입
  • 첨단 유량 솔루션으로 정확한 가스 갇힘 및 가스 다공성 제공

Workspace Overview

Gravity Die Casting Workspace(중력주조)는 엔지니어가 FLOW-3D CAST를 사용하여 중력주조 제품을 성공적으로 모델링할 수 있도록 설계된 직관적인 모델링 환경입니다.

Ladle 모션, 벤트 및 배압이 충진해석에 포함되어 공기 갇힘 및 미세 응고수축공의 정확한 예측과 금형온도분포 및 상태 예측이 가능합니다.-첨단 응고 모델은 Workspace의 하위 프로세스 아키텍처를 통해 충준해석기능에 원활하게 연결됩니다. Gravity Die Casting Workspace는 다목적 모델링 환경에서 시뮬레이션의 모든 측면을 위한 완전하고 정확한 솔루션을 제공합니다.

PROCESSES MODELED

  • Gravity die casting
  • Vacuum die casting

FLEXIBLE MESHING

  • FAVOR™ simple mesh generation tool
  • Multi-block meshing
  • Nested meshing

MOLD MODELING

  • Localized die heating elements and cooling channels
  • Spray cooling of the die surface
  • Ceramic filters
  • Air vents

ADVANCED SOLIDIFICATION

  • Porosity
  • Shrinkage
  • Hot spots
  • Mechanical property
  • Microstructure

SAND CORES

  • Core gas evolution
  • Material definitions for core properties

DIE THERMAL MANAGEMENT

  • Thermal die cycling
  • Heat saturation
  • Full heat transfer

LADLE MOTION

  • 6 degrees of freedom motion definition

DEFECT PREDICTION

  • Macro and micro porosity
  • Gas porosity
  • Early solidification
  • Oxide formation
  • Surface defect analysis

VACUUM AND VENTING

  • Interactive probe placement
  • Area and loss coefficient calculator

MACRO AND MICRO POROSITY

  • Gas porosity
  • Early solidification
  • Oxide formation
  • Surface defect analysis

FILLING ACCURACY

  • Gas and bubble entrapment
  • Surface oxide calculation
  • RNG and LES turbulence models
  • Backpressure

COMPLETE ANALYSIS PACKAGE

  • Animations with multi-viewports – 3D, 2D, history plots, volume rendering
  • Porosity analysis tool
  • Side-by-side simulation results comparison
  • Sensors for measuring melt temperature, solid fraction
  • Particle tracers
  • Batch post-processing
  • Report generation

Prediction of Shrinkage Defects During Investment Casting Process

Indianapolis Storm-Water System

하수도 시스템은 액션영화의 도피 루트로 사용되지 않는 한 흥미롭지 않을 것입니다. 폭우로 인해 이산화탄소 수치가 올라갈 때까지 여러분은 그것에 대해 생각조차 하지 않을 것입니다. 불행하게도, 770개 이상의 오래 된 미국 도시들 아래에 있는 하수구 시스템은 심한 폭풍으로 오염 문제를 일으킵니다. 이러한 구형 설계는 하수 및 폭풍 유실을 위한 비용 효율적인 단일 스타일 파이프를 사용했으며 연결된 파이프로 강 및 호수에 하수를 내보냅니다(CSO).

1994년 미국 환경보호청(EPA)은 주로 북동부 및 그레이트 레이크 지역의 관련 지방 자치 단체들에게 CSO관련 문제를 줄이거나 제거하도록 하는 정책을 발표했습니다. (2000년 “Clean Water Act”의 일부로 법률화된 정책). 인디애나 폴리스(Indianapolis)는 가벼운 비 폭풍으로 인해 하수 오물의 백업 및 범람이 발생할 수 있는 도시 중 하나였으므로, 주요 건설 조건에서 2025년까지 문제를 해결하는 것이 필요하였습니다.

인디애나 폴리스는 국제 디자인 회사인 AECOM에 Citizens Energy Group이 건설하고 있는 3개의 깊은 암석 저장 터널 중 첫 번째를 설계할 것을 요청했습니다. 총 25마일인 이 시스템은 대규모 지하 펌프장과 기존의 하수구에서 CSO를 수직으로 떨어뜨리는 연결 구조물을 포함합니다. 첫 번째 터널의 경우, 강우가 가라 앉은 후에 3 개의 커다란 강하 구조물이 CSO를 저장 터널로 전환하여 후속 처리를 수행했습니다.

프로젝트를 해결하기 위해 AECOM은 여러 가능한 낙하 구조물 설계의 동작을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 FLOW-3D를 선택하여, 구축 및 평가 예산이 책정 된 물리적 모델에 대한 재 작업의 필요성을 최소화했습니다. 테스트 결과는 예측 값과 일치하였으므로 재설계가 필요하지 않았습니다. 또한, 이제 AECOM은 유압 설계작업의 첫 번째 단계를 일반적으로 CFD시뮬레이션을 사용합니다.

Large Scale Project on a Tight Delivery Schedule

촉박한 납품 일정에 따른 대규모 프로젝트

20세기에 건설된 하수 처리장은 주거용, 상업용, 환경유출물의 유출로 무엇을 해야 할 것인지에 대한 새로운 인식을 가져다 주었습니다. CSO 방전은 정상적으로 운영되는 동안 처리시설로 직접 이동되며 모든 과정이 양호하게 운영됩니다. 불행하게도, 대규모 폭풍이 발생하는 동안, 발전소들의 초과 용량문제를 피하기 위해 인근 수역으로 과도한 유량을 방출합니다. 이들 배출은 기름과 살충제, 야생동물 배설물에 이르기까지 다양한 오염 물질을 포함합니다.
고무적인 성공의 신호로, 1990 년대에 착공된 새로운 CSO 분리, 저장 및 처리 시설로 오염의 영향에 대해 67 %의 개선을 이루었지만, 여전히 많은 연구가 이루어져야 합니다. 인디애나 폴리스의 경우, 인디애나 폴리스시 공공사업부가 CSO 장기 통제계획을 준비한 2008년에 그러한 노력이 시작되었습니다. 정상적인 처리 공장에서 처리 할 수 있을 때까지 오버플로우가 발생하는 “저장 및 운송”접근법의 핵심은 인디애나 폴리스 터널 저장 시스템 또는 인디애나라고 합니다.

이 시스템의 첫번째 단계는 딥 록 터널 커넥터(DRTC)라고 불리는 1억 8천만달러 가치의 프로젝트입니다. DRTC는 길이 7마일의 18피트 직경의 지하 터널로, 기존의 인디애나 폴리스의 3개의 서버 대 계층 유출 연결의 흐름 경로를 다시 만들 것입니다(그림 1). 목표는 과잉 강우 유출을 기존 하수구와 새 터널 사이의 낙하 구조를 통해 이들 대피소에서 거대한 터널로 안전하게 재배치하고, 폭풍 후 처리를 위해 처리장으로 펌핑 될 수있을 때까지 유지합니다.

Fig. 1. City of Indianapolis Deep Rock Tunnel Connector (DRTC), a “storage and transport” concept being built to handle combined sewage overflow (CSO) during heavy storms. Three vertical drop structures will capture this flow and divert it downwards to 18-foot-diameter storage tunnels running more than 250 feet underground; the tunnels store the CSO until sewage treatment plant capacity becomes available. (Image courtesy Citizens Energy Group)

평균적으로 지표면 아래 250피트 깊이에서, DRTC는 건설과 궁극적인 운영 동안 위의 주변 지역에 대한 혼란을 최소화하도록 설계되었습니다. 그러나 이 프로젝트의 규모와 복잡성은 AECOM의 과제에 긴급성을 더했습니다. 세 장소 각각에 대한 가능한 낙하 구조 설계와 평가, 구조물 설계의 60%를 7개월 이내에 마무리 지었습니다.

이러한 구조물의 목적은 표준 도시 하수 시스템에서 깊은 저장 터널로 하수 흐름을 전달하는 동시에, 효율적 손실( 느린 속도 또는 백업)과 장기적인 도심을 방지하는 것입니다. 각 섹션의 크기와 모양이 유입 흐름의 볼륨 및 속도와 세심하게 일치하지 않을 경우 발생할 수 있는 구조적 손상입니다.
AECOM의 수석 기술 전문가인 라이언 에디슨 컨설턴트는 계약의 스케줄링 요구 사항이 유효성 검사를 위해서는, 단 하나의 모델에만 물리적 건물과 테스트 활동을 제한할 것이라는 것을 알게되었습니다. 다른 주요 건설 프로젝트에 15년간 FLOW-3D 시뮬레이션 소프트웨어를 사용해 왔기 때문에, 난류, 과전압 및 에너지 낭비를 예측하는 능력은 충분하지 않고 디자인 프로젝트에 적합하다고 자신했습니다. 또한 여러 검증(what-if) 시나리오를 실행하기 위한 소프트웨어 옵션을 통해 설계 세부 사항을 다시 실행해야 하는 위험을 최소화할 수 있었습니다. 변경 사항이 적용될 경우 상당한 이점은 여러개의 병렬 시공 트랙이 있는 프로젝트에 있습니다.
시간 제약에도 불구하고, 에디슨은 특히 이 도전에 만족했습니다. 왜냐하면 “CFD로 드롭 구조 설계를 만들고 물리학에서 이것들은 너무 큰 구조이기 때문입니다.”라고 그는 말합니다. 그것들은 CFD는 실제로 사용되지 않는데 보통 물리적 모델이나 손으로 계산하는 것으로 이루어집니다.

DRTC 프로젝트를 위해서, 그는 먼저 시뮬레이션된 작동 조건에 대해서 컴퓨터 설계를 테스트할 것입니다. 에디슨은 3차원의 일시적이고 격동적인 흐름 조건을 모델링 할 수 있는 소프트웨어 패키지인 FLOW-3D를 사용했습니다. 각 설계에 대한 계산 메쉬를 변경하지 않고도 여러 설계 지오 메트리를 모델링 할 수 있는 기능이였습니다.
시뮬레이션 데이터로 무장한 에디슨은 그 결과를 아이오와 대학교 II. 시설에서 시험한 1:10 크기의 물리적 모델의 작동 데이터와 비교하였습니다. (후자는 원래 아이오와 유압 연구소라고 불렸지만, 지금은 그룹의 다양한 범위를 반영하여 IIHR-Hydroscience & Engineering으로 알려져 있습니다.)

Zeroing in on the Drop-Structure Challenge

드롭 구조 과제에서 영점 조정

가장 제한적인 DRTC 사이트의 지오 메트리는 CSO 008로 지정된 레귤레이터에서 발생합니다. 기존 CSO 레귤레이터(기울기 약 75피트 아래)를 새 18피트 직경의 수집 터널과 연결하려면, 이 위치에서 150피트 이상의 수직 방향 주행이 필요합니다. 각 낙하 구조에 7백만달러 이상이 소요되는 경우, 프로젝트 관리자들은 물리적 모델이 구축된 후 비용과 시간이 많이 소요되는 재설계가 필요한 가능성을 낮추려고 애썼습니다.

역사적으로 낙하 구조는 이전 프로젝트를 적용하여 설계된 후 축소 모델로 구축되었으며, 테스트만으로도 6개월 이상이 소요될 수 있습니다. 가속화된 이 프로젝트에서, 2009년 가을에 시작한 AECOM의 초기 과제는 두가지 표준 개념 중에서 하나를 선택하는 것이었습니다. 포장-파운드 스타일과 접선 vortex버전, 둘 다 시속 35마일의 폭풍이 몰아치는 물 속에서 속도를 늦추고 통제하기 위해서 직접 계산 및 FLOW-3D에서 결정한 일반 구조 직경 및 구성 요소 크기를 사용한 초기 CFD분석으로, AECOM은 시공 가능성 및 비용 고려 사항을 평가하는 데 사용했습니다.
CSO 008의 현장 요구 사항과 비용 효율성을 고려할 때, 시 당국과 AECOM은 접선 소용돌이 낙하 구조를 선택했습니다. 이 설계의 핵심 요소는 흐름을 먼저 환상적인 제트로 유도한 다음, vortex 유도 나선형 흐름을 생성하는 테이퍼(확대) 접근 채널에 의해 공급되는 수직 튜브(드롭 샤프트)입니다. 이 통제 된 하강은 속도가 느려지고 하루 3 억 갤런 (mgd) 이상에 이르는 흐름을 안전하게 처리합니다. 스토리지 터널의 파괴적인 난류를 방지하는 것이 핵심 목표이므로 드롭 샤프트 흐름의 사전 차단이 설계의 핵심입니다.

구조 자체는 6 개의 주요 부분으로 구성됩니다. 1) 접근 채널 (기존의 하수 터널에서 나온 것), 2) 수평 흐름을 넓히고 수직 드롭 샤프트로 수평 흐름을 전달하는 직사각형 전이 테이퍼 채널, 3) 드롭 샤프트 자체 4) 탈 기실 (유량을 수평 방향으로 방향을 바꾸고 공기 유입을 감소시키는), 5) 수직 공기 배출구를 통해 낙하에서 유입 된 공기를 제거하고 적하 유체의 공기 코어가 열려 있고 6) 탈기 챔버와 저장 터널 챔버를 연결하는 파이프 (adit) (그림 2).

Fig. 2. CAD diagram of proposed Indianapolis DRTC combined sewage overflow (CSO) vertical drop structure, showing approach channel, taper channel and vortex dropshaft. Using FLOW-3D CFD analysis software, AECOM simulated the flow behavior, gaining confidence in the system performance prior to physical model testing. (Image courtesy AECOM)
Prediction of Shrinkage Defects During Investment Casting Process

This article was contributed by Dr. S. Savithri, Senior Principal Scientist at CSIR-NIIST

 

인베스트먼트 주조공정은 가장 오래된 주조 공정 중 하나로 기원전 4000년 이후에 보편화되었습니다. 이 과정은 용해된 금속을 소모품패턴으로 생성된 세라믹 쉘에 주입하는 과정을 수반합니다. 일찍이 그것은 금, 은, 구리와 청동 합금으로 장신구와 우상을 만드는데 사용되었습니다.

인베스트먼트 주조공정은 1897년 아이오와 주, 위원회 블러프스의 Barabas Frederick Philbrook이 묘사한 대로 치과의사들이 왕관과 인레이를 만들기 위해 그것을 사용하기 시작한 19세기 말 현대 산업공정으로 사용되기 시작했다. 1940년대에는 제2차 세계대전 당시 기존 방법으로는 형성될 수 없거나 지나치게 많은 가공이 필요한 특수 합금의 정밀 순모형 제조 기술에 대한 수요로 인해 투자 주조 공정이 증가하였다.

오늘날 투자 주조 공정은 표면 마감 및 치수 정확도가 우수하여 거의 순 형태에 가까운 철, 비철 및 초합금의 소형 산업용 부품을 생산하는데 주로 사용됩니다.

인베스트먼트 주조 공정은 다음 네 가지 주요 단계로 구성됩니다.

  • 왁스 패턴 생성 후, 패턴 클러스터를 만들기 위해 게이트 시스템으로 청소 및 조립합니다.
  • 나무는 세라믹 쉘을 얻기 위해 미세 모래와 Course한 모래 입자의 슬러리로 번갈아 코팅됩니다.
  • 용기는 건조되고, 왁스를 녹이기 위해 가열되며, 강도를 높이고 주입 준비합니다.
  • 마침내 주조 합금이 용해되어 예열된 쉘에 주입됩니다. 응고 후에 쉘이 파손되어 주조 부품을 얻습니다.

Figure 1. Solid model of the casting geometry

인베스트먼트 주조 공정에서 얻은 부품은 많은 중요한 용도에 사용되므로 내부적인 결함이 없어야 합니다. 투자 주조 공정에서 발생하는 주요 결함은 세라믹 포함, 균열, 변형, 플래시, 주탕불량, 수축, 슬래그 포함, 탕경계등입니다. 얻은 주조물의 품질을 예측하려면 금속-몰드 열 전달계수, 주입 온도 등 다양한 주조 공정 매개 변수의 영향을 연구해야 합니다. 즉, 쉘 두께 및 쉘 열 전달계수가 그것입니다. 현대 컴퓨터 시스템 및 시뮬레이션 소프트웨어의 출현과 함께 금형 충진 및 응고 시뮬레이션은 주조공장에서 결함을 예측하고 설계를 최적화하는데 점점 더 많이 사용되고 있습니다.

이 연구의 주요 목적은 투자 주조 공정에서 주요 요소인 복사 열 전달과 인베스트먼트 주조공정에 고유한 쉘 금형이 FLOW-3D에서 효과적으로 구현될 수 있는지를 조사하는 것입니다. FLOW-3D를 사용하여 간단한 형상을 위한 인베스트먼트 주조공정의 주입 및 응고 시뮬레이션을 수행함으로써 두 구성요소의 서로 다른 효과를 조사합니다. 다양한 위치에서 얻은 온도의 수치는 문헌 [1]에보고 된 실험 결과로 검증됩니다. 복사 열 전달계수, 쉘 몰드 두께, 탕구 및 게이트의 위치에 대한 영향도 조사했습니다.

Figure 2. Shell mold

 

Methodology

현재 연구에서 사용된 계산 형상은 그림 1에 나와 있습니다. 쉘 몰드는 다음 단계를 사용하여 작성되었습니다.

  • 구성 요소 1로 형상을 FLOW-3D로 가져오고 지정된 셀 크기로 가져온 형상을 중심으로 메쉬 블록을 작성합니다.
  • “보완”유형의 component1의 첫 번째 하위 구성 요소를 만들어 하위 구성 요소 외부의 모든 항목을 메쉬의 범위까지 확고하게 만듭니다.
  • 솔리드 데이터베이스에서 이 솔리드 블록의 금형 재질 특성을 정의하십시오.
  • 솔리드 특성 GUI의 구성 요소 특성에서 “열 침투 깊이”를 정의하는 옵션이 있습니다. 여기서 쉘 두께 값을 정의 할 수 있습니다.
  • 이제 전처리기를 실행하십시오.
  • 분석 탭> 3D 탭으로 이동 한 다음 이전 단계에서 생성 한 prpgrf 파일을 엽니다. ‘Iso-surface’와 ‘color variable’에서 “열 활성화 구성 요소 볼륨”을 선택하고 “렌더링”을 선택하십시오.
  • Display에 이제 형상의 셸 부분 만 표시됩니다.
  • 개체 목록 (창의 왼쪽 하단)에서 “구성 요소 1″을 선택하고 “구성 요소 1″을 마우스 오른쪽 단추로 클릭 한 다음 “stl로 내보내기”를 선택하여 이 곡면을 STL 파일로 저장하십시오.

Figure 3. The view of the two mesh blocks for the creation of a void with discretization

쉘 몰드 용 STL 파일을 만든 후 파일을 구성 요소 1로 새 시뮬레이션으로 가져오고 이전에 작성한 주조 형상을 하위 구성 요소로 가져오고 유형을 ‘hole’으로 선택합니다. 쉘 몰드와 함께 주조 형상이 그림 2에 나와 있습니다. 이것은 우리의 계산 영역으로 사용됩니다. 다음은 계산 영역을 cubical/rectangular셀로 분할하기 위한 메쉬를 만드는 것입니다. 메쉬 블록을 작성하여 FLOW-3D에서 메쉬를 생성합니다. 현재의 작업을 위해 우리는 2.5mm의 고정된 셀 크기가 선택된 그림 3에 표시된 균일한 메쉬 옵션을 선택했습니다. 입력 위치 주변에 메시 블록 2가 사용되는 현재 시뮬레이션을 위해 메시 블록 2개가 생성되었습니다. 쉘과 주변 공기 사이의 30°C에서의 열 전달을 고려하여 쉘 주위에 보이드 영역이 정의됩니다. 이 영역은 ‘열 전달 유형 1’이 있는 보이드 영역으로 선택되며 셸과 주변 공기 사이에 열 전달 계수 값이 지정됩니다. 열 전달 유형 1은 방사선을 포함한 종합 열 전달 계수가 됩니다.

쉘 주형에 선택된 재료는 zircon이며 열 특성은 Sabau and Vishwanathan에 의해 수행된 실험에서 얻을 수 있습니다[2]. 표 1은 연구에 사용된 재료에 대해 지정된 값을 보여 줍니다.

MATERIALPROPERTY VALUEUNIT
Fluid –AluminiumA356

alloy

Density  2437kg/m³
Thermal conductivity116.8W/(mK)
Specific heat 1074J/(kgK)
Latent heat 433.22kJ/m³
Liquidus temperature608°C
Solidus temperature552.4°C
Zircon MoldThermal conductivity1.09W/(mK)
Specific heat* Density1.63E+06J/( m³K)

Initial and boundary conditions used are show in Table 2.      

 

Mold temperature 430°C
Melt pouring temperature 680°C
Filling time 7 s
Interface heat transfer coefficient 850 W/m2K
Heat transfer coefficient between ambient and mold (radiation effect)30 -100 W/m2K

Table 2. Initial and boundary conditions used for the simulation

 

탕구저에 들어가는 용융물의 초기 속도와 온도는 메시 블록 2의 상단 경계에서 속도 경계 조건으로 주어집니다. 기본적으로 다른 모든 경계는 대칭 유형으로 설정됩니다.

 

Results & Discussion

Validation with reported experimental results

충전 및 응고 동안 냉각 곡선을 얻기 위한 실험에서 Sabuet.al[1]에 의해 선택된 네 개의 위치가 검증 목적으로 사용되었습니다. 그들은 C1, C2, S11, S12및 S21로 언급됩니다. C1과 C2지점은 주물의 플레이트의 중심에 있으며 S11, S12및 S21은 모두 쉘에 위치합니다. 이러한 위치에서의 온도 변화는 그림 4와 같습니다.

온도 프로파일의 수치 및 실험결과의 차이가 허용한계 안에 있음을 알 수 있습니다. 프로브 포인트 C1과 C2의 경우, 수치와 실험 결과 사이의 차이는 응고 중에 5%, 응고 후 냉각 시 12% 이내입니다. 쉘의 점에 대한 수치 결과는 실험 결과보다 약 5% 높습니다. 이는 쉘 재료에 열 물리학적 특성을 할당할 때 발생하는 가정과 쉘 열 전달 계수의 값 때문일 수 있습니다.

 

Fill sequence & solidification pattern for two different sprue locations

두 가지 다른 스프 루 위치의 채우기 순서 및 응고 패턴

2 개의 상이한 탕구 위치에 주물충전 순서는5a 및5b에 나와 있습니다. 최종 탕구가 더 많은 스플라인을 생성하므로 결함으로 이어질 수 있습니다. 탕구가 중간에 놓여지면 흐름은 보다 균일 해지고 두 주조 단면에서 비슷한 온도 분포를 보입니다. 50 % 응고 후의 온도 프로파일의 2D 도면은 두 경우 모두 그림 5c 및 5d에 나와 있습니다. 수축 위치에서 볼 때 두 탕구 위치가 결함을 일으키는 것은 분명합니다.

Figure 5a. Fill sequence at different time intervals when the sprue is located at one end

Figure 5b. Fill sequence at different time intervals when the sprue is located in the middle

Figure 5c. 2D temperature profile after 50% solidification when the sprue is located at one end

Figure 5d. 2D temperature profile after 50% solidification when the sprue is located in the middle

Effect of shell thickness

인베스트먼트 주조에 대한 쉘 두께의 효과를 연구하기 위해 두께가 7.2, 10, 15 및 20 mm인 주물을 선정하였습니다. 그림 6a 및 6b는 주조품의 특정 위치에서 냉각 곡선을 나타내며, 이는 C1으로 나타내고 쉘 몰드 내의 특정 위치에 있으며, 응고 중에 S11로 나타납니다. 세라믹 쉘의 두께가 7.2 mm에서 15 mm로 증가하면 냉각 속도가 감소하여 응고 시간이 길어지는 것을 볼 수 있습니다.

Effect of shell heat transfer coefficient

셸 열 전달 계수는 열이 셸 금형의 외부 벽에서 방사선을 통해 주변 공기로 열을 방출하는 속도를 나타냅니다. 이 효과를 조사하기 위해 열 전달 계수의 값을 20에서 80W/m2K까지 다양하게 했습니다. 7a 및 7b로부터, h의 변화는 주조 재료 및 쉘의 냉각 속도에 중요한 영향을 미친다는 것을 알 수 있습니다. 열 전달 계수가 20에서 80W/m2K로 증가하면 C1에서의 응고 시간이 812 초에서 334 초 (약 44 %)로 감소되었음을 알 수 있습니다. 따라서, h의 값을 변화시키는 것은 주물의 미세 구조에 영향을 미칩니다.

Figure 6a. Temperature profile at location C1 (casting) for the casting geometry where the sprue is located at one end for various shell thickness values

 

F

Figure 6b. Temperature profile at location S11 (shell) for the casting geometry where the sprue is located at one end for various shell thickness values

Figure 7a. Temperature profile at location C1 (casting) for the casting geometry where the sprue is located at one end for various heat transfer coefficient values between the shell mold & ambient

Figure 7b. Temperature profile at location S11 (shell) for the casting geometry where the sprue is located at one end for various heat transfer coefficient values between the shell mold & ambient

Conclusions

인베스트먼트 주조 공정의 몰드 충진 및 응고 시뮬레이션은 FLOW-3D를 사용하여 수행되었습니다. 주조 공정에 대한 주조 매개변수의 영향을 연구하기 위해 파라메트릭 연구가 수행되었습니다. 본 연구에서 다음과 같은 결론을 도출 할 수 있습니다.

  • FLOW-3D는 멀티 캐비티 몰드의 주입 및 응고 모델링이 가능합니다. 프로브 위치의 예측 온도 프로파일은 실험 데이터의 허용오차 이내였다.
  • 쉘 두께의 경우, 두 경우 모두 셸의 임계 두께가 있으며, 그 이상으로 열 전달 특성이 역행하는 것으로 확인되었습니다. 셸 두께가 증가함에 따라 응고 시간이 임계 두께까지 증가하여 감소하기 시작했습니다. 원래 형상의 경우 임계 두께는 15~20mm인 반면 수정된 형상의 경우 10mm와 15mm 사이에 있다.
  • 쉘과 대기 사이의 열 전달 계수 h는 열 전달 특성에 가장 큰 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났습니다. h가 20에서 80W/m2K로 4 배 증가할 때 탕구의 중심에서 응고 시간이 40 % 이상 감소했습니다.

References

Sabau, A.S., Numerical Simulation of the Investment Casting Process, Transactions of the American Foundry Society, vol. 113, Paper No. 05-160, 2005.

Sabau, A.S., and Viswanathan, S., Thermophysical Properties of Zircon and Fused Silica-based Shells used in the Investment Casting ProcessTransactions of the American Foundry Society, vol. 112, Paper No. 04-081, 2004.

 
Design and CFD Analysis

설계 및 CFD분석

일반적인 소용돌이 설계는 널리 받아들여지고 있지만, 각 낙하 구조는 최적의 접선 흐름 특성을 보장하기 위해 인디애나 폴리스의 위상에 맞는 적절한 크기를 가져야 했습니다. 특히, 가능한 설계에 대한 AECOM의 계획은 세가지 목표를 가지고 있었습니다. 결합된 접근법과 테이퍼 채널을 짧은 길이로 제한하는 현장, 고유의 제약이 있었는지를 결정합니다. 허용 가능하지만 접근 방식에서 과도한 난류 조건이 발생하지 않았습니다. 테이퍼 채널에 안정적인 흐름 조건이 존재하는지 확인하고 다양한 흐름 조건에서 흐름 안정성을 평가했고, 논리적 기준점은 밀워키 인라인 스토리지 프로젝트라고 불리는 잘 알려지고 문서화된 시스템이었습니다.

Edison은 DRTC 프로젝트 규모에 맞춰 H-4로 지정된 Milwaukee 드롭 구조 설계를 기반으로 초기 설계를 기반으로했습니다.
166 피트의 기본 낙하 길이를 포함하고 체적 유량, 벽, 대칭 및 기타 초기 매개 변수를 지정하는 FLOW-3D 분석을 설정합니다.
그는 우리가 CFD를 통해 발견한 것은 밀워키에서 이 디자인을 사용하면 우리의 어플리케이션에 잘 맞지 않는다는 것이라고 말합니다. FLOW-3D는 이것을 보여 주고 있었기 때문에 CFD를 사용하여 변형을 시도하고 우리의 수정된 디자인을 고안했습니다.
더 넓은 접근 경로, 더 넓은 테이퍼 및/또는 더 깊은 테이퍼 깊이를 사용한 수정은 에디슨은 FLOW-3D에서 각 변동 사항을 설정하는 것이 매우 빠르다고 말합니다. (그림 3,4,5). 개선의 진전은 고무적이었습니다. 시뮬레이션 결과의 높은 수준은 심지어 절삭(침식)을 개선하기 위해 드롭 축의 바닥에 의문스러운 플레이트가 수직 흐름이 수평으로 전환되는 난류 분리 및 감소가되도록 기능을 추가하도록 설득했습니다.

Figs. 3, 4 and 5. Tangential drop structure flow simulated with FLOW-3D. Structure dimensions were optimized through multiple design iterations. (Image courtesy AECOM)

9번째 설계 변동에 대한 FLOW-3D 출력 동작인 V9는 접근 섹션을 확장했으며, 모든 흐름 볼륨 레벨에서 300mg/d까지 양호한 흐름 안정성을 보였으며 유압식 점프는 없었습니다. 그리고 양호한 Froude numners(유체 움직임에 미치는 중력의 영향을 나타내기 위해 사용되는 치수 없는 수량), 2010년 2월부터 AECOM이 물리적 시험과 검증을 위해 선택하였습니다(그림 6). 그 계획은 아이오와 연구소의 시험 결과에 기초하여 CFD와 최적화를 추가하는 것이였습니다.

Fig. 6. Scale model (1:10) of vertical drop structure, tested at University of Iowa IIHR Hydroscience & Engineering facility. (Image courtesy AECOM)

에디슨은 V9에서 결정된 치수 매개 변수에 대해 그 디자인을 아이오와 주에 가져가서 CFD를 이용해 만들었는데 완벽하게 작동했습니다. (II.)직원들은 실제로 무언가를 설치한 것은 이번이 처음이며, 변경하라고 말할 만한 것이 아무것도 없다고 말했습니다. 측정된 데이터는 드롭 샤프트 연결 구조 내의 수면 높이, Adit내 공기 침투의 정량, 벤트 샤프트 위로 공기 흐름을 포함했습니다. 흐름이 증가함에 따라 와류량이 증가함에 따라 축 벽에 부착되어 탈산소까지 원활하게 회전하는 모습이 포착되었습니다(그림 7).

에디슨은 후속 실험을 위해 여러번 시험장을 돌아다녔습니다. 물리적 모델이 처음부터 올바르게 작동했기 때문에 시험 프로그램을 확장할 시간이 있었습니다. “재미 있는 것은 환기구를 움직이는 것과 같이 우리가 궁금했던 것들을 탐구해서 지적으로 그것을 가지고 놀 시간이 있었다는 것입니다.” 에디슨은 예정보다 앞서 있었기 때문에 잔여 프로젝트 시간을 이용해 탈염소와 adit 내의 유압 장치를 조사할 수 있었습니다.

Fig. 7. Operation of scale-model vertical drop structure, showing test run of 300 million gallons per day (mgd). Flow vortex development shows good rotation and attachment to the shaft wall all the way down to the de-aeration chamber. No design modifications were necessary to the simulated design. (Image courtesy AECOM)

Final Results

AECOM은 2010년 7월 DRTC에 대한 전반적인 작업을 마쳤습니다. 2013년 3월부터 18구경 터널을 굴착하기 시작했고, CSO드롭 구조 3개(CFD로 설계된 나머지 2개의 구조물만 있음)는 모두 현재 공사 중입니다.

에디슨의 의견으로는, 토목 공학은 전체적으로 CFD를 채택하는 데 느린 편이었습니다. 이를 입증하기 위해 그는 인천 국제 공항을 처음 방문한 당시 접선 소용돌이 모형의 소위 “묘지”에서 본것을 기술했습니다. 그러나 그는 이들을 다시 처리해야 했다고 말했습니다.  그는 유압 설계를 위한 시뮬레이션 사용으로 판매되는 것을 권장하고 있습니다.

에디슨은 DRTC노력을 요약하면서 “정말 재미 있었습니다. 물리적 모델링이 필요한 위치에 대해 더 자세히 알아보았고, 그렇다면 어떤 경우에는 순수한 RAID기반 설계를 수행할 수 있습니다. 많은 DRTC작업들이 그것의 증거입니다. 물리적 모델은 실제로 필요하지 않았지만 검증을 통해 위험을 줄일 수 있었습니다. 프로젝트에서 이 두가지를 모두 수행할 수 있었다는 것은 믿을 수 없는 일입니다.”라고 말했습니다.

This article first appeared in WaterWorld Magazine.

Additive Manufacturing & Welding Bibliography

Additive Manufacturing & Welding Bibliography

다음은 적층 제조 및 용접 참고 문헌의 기술 문서 모음입니다. 이 모든 논문에는 FLOW-3D AM 결과가 나와 있습니다. FLOW-3D AM을 사용하여 적층 제조, 레이저 용접 및 기타 용접 기술에서 발견되는 프로세스를 성공적으로 시뮬레이션하는 방법에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오.

2024년 11월 20일 update

121-24 Lovejoy Mutswatiwa, Lauren Katch, Nathan John Kizer, Judith Anne Todd, Tao Sun, Samuel James Clark, Kamel Fezzaa, Jordan Lum, David Matthew Stobbe, Griffin Jones, Kenneth Charles Meinert Jr., Andrea Paola Argüelles, Christopher Micheal Kube, High-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging of melt pool dynamics during ultrasonic melt processing of Al6061, Communications Materials, 5; 143, 2024. doi.org/10.1038/s43246-024-00584-3

120-24 Mysore Nagaraja Kishore, Dong Qian, Masakazu Soshi, Wei Li, Conforming mesh modeling of multi-physics effect on residual stress in multi-layer powder bed fusion process, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 124; pp. 793-804, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.06.033

113-24 Yusufu Ekubaru, Takuya Nakabayashi, Tomoharu Fujiwara, Behrang Poorganji, Processing windows of Ni625 alloy fabricated using direct energy deposition, Advanced Engineering Materials, 2024. doi.org/10.1002/adem.202400962

111-24 Ruijie Liu, Melt pool dynamic modelling for the titanium-based metal additive manufacturing process, Thesis, The University of Auckland, 2024.

104-24 Ju Wang, Meng Li, Huarong Zhang, Zhe Liu, Xiaodan Li, Dengzhi Yao, Yuhang Wu, Qiong Wu, Xizhong An, Shujun Li, Jian Wang, Xing Zhang , Cumulative effects of powder beds and melted areas on pore defects in electron beam powder bed fusion of tungsten, Powder Technology, 443; 119971, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2024.119971

100-24 Xuesong Gao, Aryan Aryan, Wei Zhang, Numerical analysis of rotating scans’ effect on surface roughness in laser-powder bed fusion, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 30; pp. 8671-8682, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.05.214

95-24 Yongbiao Wang, Yue Zhang, Junjie Jiang, Yang Zhang, Hongyang Cui, Xintian Liu, Yujuan Wu, Cross-scale simulation of macro/microstructure evolution during selective laser melting of Mg–Gd–Y alloy, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B , 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s11663-024-03104-3

94-24 Yang Chu, Haichuan Shi, Peilei Zhang, Zhishui Yu, Hua Yan, Qinghua Lu, Shijie Song, Kaichang Yu, Simulation-assisted parameter optimization and tribological behavior of graphene reinforced IN718 matrix composite prepared by SLM, Intermetallics, 170; 108307, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.intermet.2024.108307

92-24 Ying Wei, Song Han, Shiwei Yu, Ziwei Chen, Ziang Li, Hailong Wang, Wenbo Cheng, Mingzhe An , Parameter impact on 3D concrete printing from single to multi-layer stacking, Automation in Construction, 164; 105449, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.105449

90-24 Chuanbin Du, Yuewei Ai, Yiyuan Wang, Chenglong Ye, The effect mechanism of laser beam defocusing on the surface quality of IN718 alloy prepared by laser powder bed fusion, Powder Technology, 443; 119841, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2024.119841

88-24 Arash Samaei, Joseph P. Leonor, Zhengtao Gan, Zhongsheng Sang, Xiaoyu Xie, Brian J. Simonds, Wing Kam Liu, Gregory J. Wagner, Benchmark study of melt pool and keyhole dynamics, laser absorptance, and porosity in additive manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V, Progress in Additive Manufacturing, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00637-6

83-24 Ao Fu, Zhonghao Xie, Jian Wang, Yuankui Cao, Bingfeng Wang, Jia Li, Qihong Fang, Xiaofeng Li, Bin Liu, Yong Liu, Controlling of cellular substructure and its effect on mechanical properties of FeCoCrNiMo0.2 high entropy alloy fabricated by selective laser melting, Materials Science and Engineering: A, 901; 146547, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2024.146547

82-24 Fatemeh Bodaghi, Mojtaba Movahedi, Suck-Joo Na, Lin-Jie Zhang, Amir Hossein Kokabi, Effect of welding current and speed on solidification cracking susceptibility in gas tungsten arc fillet welding of dissimilar aluminum alloys: Coupling a weld simulation and a cracking criterion, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 30: pp. 4777-4785, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.04.195

81-24 Myeonghwan Choi, Dae-Won Cho, Kwang-Hyeon Lee, Seonghoon Yoo, Sangyong Nam, Namhyun Kang, Severe Mn vaporization for partial-penetrated laser keyhole welds of high-manganese cryogenic steel, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 227; 125567, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2024.125567

78-24 An Wang, Qianglong Wei, Zijue Tang, J.P. Oliviera, Chu Lun Alex Leung, Pengyuan Ren, Xiaolin Zhang, Yi Wu, Haowei Wang, Hongze Wang, Effects of hatch spacing on pore segregation and mechanical properties during blue laser directed energy deposition of AlSi10Mg, Additive Manufacturing, 85; 104147, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104147

77-24 Jeongho Yang, Seonghun Ji, Du-Rim Eo, Jongcheon Yoon, Parviz Kahhal, Hyub Lee, Sang Hu Park, Effect of abnormal powder feeding on mechanical properties of fabricated part in directed energy deposition, International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing – Green Technology, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s40684-024-00620-0

72-24 Minglei Qu, Jiandong Yuan, Ali Nabaa, Junye Huang, Chihpin Andrew Chuang, Lianyi Chen, Melting and solidification dynamics during laser melting of reaction-based metal matrix composites uncovered by in-situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction, Acta Materialia, 271; 119875, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2024.119875

71-24 Chenze Li, Manish Jain, Qian Liu, Zhuohan Cao, Michael Ferry, Jamie J. Kruzic, Bernd Gludovatz, Xiaopeng Li, Multi-scale microstructure manipulation of an additively manufactured CoCrNi medium entropy alloy for superior mechanical properties and tunable mechanical anisotropy, Additive Manufacturing, 84; 104104, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104104

68-24 Jialu Wang, Shuaicheng Zhu, Miaojin Jiang, Yunwei Gui, Huadong Fu, Jianxin Xie, Solidification track morphology, residual stress behavior, and microstructure evolution mechanism of FGH96-R nickel-based superalloys during laser powder bed fusion process, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s11665-024-09326-5

66-24 Erik Holmen Olofsson, Ashley Dan, Michael Roland, Ninna Halberg Jokil, Rohit Ramachandran, Jesper Henri Hattel, Numerical modeling of fill-level and residence time in starve-fed single-screw extrusion: a dimensionality reduction study from a 3D CFD model to a 2D convection-diffusion model, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 132; pp. 1111-1125, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-13378-1

64-24 Feipeng An, Linjie Zhang, Wei Ma, Suck Joo Na, Influences of the powder size and process parameters on the quasi-stability of molten pool shape in powder bed fusion-laser beam of molybdenum, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s11665-024-09328-3

63-24 Haodong Chen, Xin Lin, Yajing Sun, Shuhao Wang, Kunpeng Zhu, Binbin Dan, Revealing formation mechanism of end of process depression in laser powder bed fusion by multi-physics meso-scale simulation, Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 19.1; e2326599, 2024. doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2024.2326599

57-24 Masayuki Okugawa, Kenji Saito, Haruki Yoshima, Katsuhiko Sawaizumi, Sukeharu Nomoto, Makoto Watanabe, Takayoshi Nakano, Yuichiro Koizumi, Solute segregation in a rapidly solidified Hastelloy-X Ni-based superalloy during laser powder bed fusion investigated by phase-field and computational thermal-fluid dynamics simulations, Additive Manufacturing, 84; 104079, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104079

51-24 Jeongho Yang, Dongseok Kang, Si Mo Yeon, Yong Son, Sang Hu Park, Interval island laser-scanning strategy of Ti–6Al–4V part additively manufactured for anisotropic stress reduction, International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, 25; pp. 1087-1099, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s12541-024-00967-z

50-24 James Lamb, Ruben Ochoa, Adriana Eres-Castellanos, Jonah Klemm-Toole, McLean P. Echlin, Tao Sun, Kamel Fezzaa, Amy Clarke, Tresa M. Pollack, Quantification of melt pool dynamics and microstructure during simulated additive manufacturing, Scripta Materialia, 245; 116036, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2024.116036

41-24 Xiong Zhang, Chunjin Wang, Benny C.F. Cheung, Gaoyang Mi, Chunming Wang, Ultrafast laser ablation of tungsten carbide: Quantification of threshold range and interpretation of feature transition, Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 107.6; pp. 3724-3734, 2024. doi.org/10.1111/jace.19718

38-24 Hao-Ping Yeh, Mohamad Bayat, Amirhossein Arzani, Jesper H. Hattel, Accelerated process parameter selection of polymer-based selective laser sintering via hybrid physics-informed neural network and finite element surrogate modelling, Applied Mathematical Modelling, 130; pp. 693-712, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2024.03.030

34-24 Khalid El Abbaoui, Issam Al Korachi, Mostapha El Jai, Berin Šeta, Md. Tusher Mollah, 3D concrete printing using computational fluid dynamics: Modeling of material extrusion with slip boundaries, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 118; pp. 448-459, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.03.042

33-24 Hao Lu, Lida Zhu, Pengsheng Xue, Boling Yan, Yanpeng Hao, Zhichao Yang, Jinsheng Ning, Chuanliang Shi, Hao Wang, Ultrasonic machining response and improvement mechanism for differentiated bio-CoCrMo alloys manufactured by directed energy deposition, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 193; pp. 226-243, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2023.12.037

32-24 Yinghang Liu, Zhe Song, Yi Guo, Gaoming Zhu, Yunhao Fan, Huamiao Wang, Wentao Yan, Xiaoqin Zeng, Leyun Wang, Simultaneously enhancing strength and ductility of LPBF Ti alloy via trace Y2O3 nanoparticle addition, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 191; pp. 146-156, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2024.01.011

27-24 Zehui Liu, Yiyang Hu, Mingyang Zhang, Wei Zhang, Jun Wang, Wenbo Lei, Chunming Wang, Surface morphology evolution mechanisms of pulse laser polishing mold steel, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 269; 109039, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2024.109039

25-24 Muhammad Arif Mahmood, Kashif Ishfaq, Marwan Khraisheh, Inconel-718 processing windows by directed energy deposition: a framework combining computational fluid dynamics and machine learning models with experimental validation, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 130; pp. 3997-4011, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-12980-7

24-24   Jinsheng Ning, Lida Zhu, Shuhao Wang, Zhichao Yang, Peihua Xu, Pengsheng Xue, Hao Lu, Miao Yu, Yunhang Zhao, Jiachen Li, Susmita Bose, Amit Bandyopadhyay, Printability disparities in heterogeneous material combinations via laser directed energy deposition: a comparative study, International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing, 6; 025001, 2024. doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ad172f

18-24   Delong Jia, Dong Zhou, Peng Yi, Chuanwei Zhang, Junru Li, Yankuo Guo, Shengyue Zhang, Yanhui Li, Splat deposition stress formation mechanism of droplets impacting onto texture, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 266; 109002, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2024.109002

11-24   Dae Gune Jung, Ji Young Park, Choong Mo Ryu, Jong Jin Hwang, Seung Jae Moon, Numerical study of laser welding of 270 μm thick silicon-steel sheets for electrical motors, Metals, 14.1; 24, 2024. doi.org/10.3390/met14010024

8-24   Zhifu Yao, Longke Bao, Mujin Yang, Yuechao Chen, Minglin He, Jiang Yi, Xintong Yang, Tao Yang, Yilu Zhao, Cuiping Wang, Zheng Zhong, Shuai Wang, Xingjun Liu, Thermally stabe strong <101> texture in additively manufactured cobalt-based superalloys, Scripta Materialia, 242; 115942, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2023.115942

5-24   Xi Shu, Chunyu Wang, Guoqing Chen, Chunju Wang, Lining Sun, Pre-melted electron beam freeform fabrication additive manufacturing: modeling and numerical simulation, Welding in the World, 68; pp. 163-176, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s40194-023-01647-8

4-24   Lin Gao, Andrew C. Chuang, Peter Kenesei, Zhongshu Ren, Lilly Balderson, Tao Sun, An operando synchrotron study on the effect of wire melting state on solidification microstructures of Inconel 718 in wire-laser directed energy deposition, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 194; 104089, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2023.104089

3-24 Kunjie Dai, Xing He, Decheng Kong, Chaofang Dong, Multi-physical field simulation to yield defect-free IN718 alloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, Materials Letters, 355; 135437, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2023.135437

2-24 You Wang, Yinkai Xie, Huaixue Li, Caiyou Zeng, Ming Xu, Hongqiang Zhang, In-situ monitoring plume, spattering behavior and revealing their relationship with melt flow in laser powder bed fusion of nickel-based superalloy, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 177; pp. 44-58, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2023.07.068

1-24 Yukai Chen, Hongtu Xu, Yu Lu, Yin Wang, Shuangyuzhou Wang, Ke Huang, Qi Zhang, Prediction of microstructure for Inconel 718 laser welding process using multi-scale model, Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on the Technology of Plasticity – Current Trends in the Technology of Plasticity, pp. 713-722, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41341-4_75

211-23 Giovanni Chianese, Qamar Hayat, Sharhid Jabar, Pasquale Franciosa, Darek Ceglarek, Stanislao Patalano, A multi-physics CFD study to investigate the impact of laser beam shaping on metal mixing and molten pool dynamics during laser welding of copper to steel for battery terminal-to-casing connections, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 322; 118202, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2023.118202

207-23 Dong Liu, Jiaqi Pei, Hua Hou, Xiaofeng Niu, Yuhong Zhao, Optimizing solidification dendrites and process parameters for laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of GH3536 superalloy by finite volume and phase-field method, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 27; pp. 3323-3338, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.10.188

206-23 Houshang Yin, Jingfan Yang, Ralf D. Fischer, Zilong Zhang, Bart Prorok, Lang Yuan, Xiaoyuan Lou, Pulsed laser additive manufacturing for 316L stainless steel: a new approach to control subgrain cellular structure, JOM, 75; pp. 5027-5036, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s11837-023-06177-8

205-23 Francis Ogoke, William Lee, Ning-Yu Kao, Alexander Myers, Jack Beuth, Jonathan Malen, Amir Barati Farimani, Convolutional neural networks for melt depth prediction and visualization in laser powder bed fusion, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 129; pp. 3047-3062, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12384-z

202-23 Habib Hamed Zargari, Kazuhiro Ito, Abhay Sharma, Effect of workpiece vibration frequency on heat distribution and material flow in the molten pool in tandem-pulsed gas metal arc welding, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 129; pp. 2507-2522, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12424-8

199-23 Yukai Chen, Yin Wang, Hao Li, Yu Lu, Bin Han, Qi Zhang, Effects of process parameters on the microstructure of Inconel 718 during powder bed fusion based on cellular automata approach, Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 18.1; e2251032, 2023. doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2023.2251032

197-23 Qiong Wu, Chuang Qiao, Yuhang Wu, Zhe Liu, Xiaodan Li, Ju Wang, Xizhong An, Aijun Huang, Chao Voon Samuel Lim, Numerical investigation on the reuse of recycled powders in powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing, 77; 103821, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103821

196-23 Daicong Zhang, Chunhui Jing, Wei Guo, Yuan Xiao, Jun Luo, Lehua Qi, Microchannels formed using metal microdroplets, Micromachines, 14.10; 1922, 2023. doi.org/10.3390/mi14101922

195-23 Trong-Nhan Le, Santosh Rauniyar, V.H. Nismath, Kevin Chou, An investigation into the effects of contouring process parameters on the up-skin surface characteristics in laser powder-bed fusion process, Manufacturing Letters, 35; Supplement, pp. 707-716, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2023.08.085

194-23 Kyubok Lee, Teresa J. Rinker, Masoud M. Pour, Wayne Cai, Wenkang Huang, Wenda Tan, Jennifer Bracey, Jingjing Li, A study on cracks and IMCs in laser welding of Al and Cu, Manufacturing Letters, 35; Supplement, pp. 221-231, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2023.08.026

192-23 Kunjie Dai, Xing He, Wei Zhang, Decheng Kong, Rong Guo, Minlei Hu, Ketai He, Chaofang Dong, Tailoring the microstructure and mechanical properties for Hastelloy X alloy by laser powder bed fusion via scanning strategy, Materials & Design, 235; 112386, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112386

191-23 Jun Du, Daqing Wang, Jimiao He, Yongheng Zhang, Zhike Peng, Influence of droplet size and ejection frequency on molten pool dynamics and deposition morphology in TIG-aided droplet deposition manufacturing, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 148; 107075, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2023.107075

188-23 Jin-Hyeong Park, Du-Song Kim, Dae-Won Cho, Jaewoong Kim, Changmin Pyo, Influence of thermal flow and predicting phase transformation on various welding positions, Heat and Mass Transfer, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s00231-023-03429-w

184-23 Lin Gao, Jishnu Bhattacharyya, Wenhao Lin, Zhongshu Ren, Andrew C. Chuang, Pavel D. Shevchenko, Viktor Nikitin, Ji Ma, Sean R. Agnew, Tao Sun, Tailoring material microstructure and property in wire-laser directed energy deposition through a wiggle deposition strategy, Additive Manufacturing, 77; 103801, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103801

182-23 Liping Guo, Hanjie Liu, Hongze Wang, Qianglong Wei, Jiahui Zhang, Yingyan Chen, Chu Lun Alex Leung, Qing Lian, Yi Wu, Yu Zou, Haowei Wang, A high-fidelity comprehensive framework for the additive manufacturing printability assessment, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 105; pp. 219-231, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.09.041

172-23 Liping Guo, Hanjie Liu, Hongze Wang, Qianglong Wei, Yakai Xiao, Zijue Tang, Yi Wu, Haowei Wang, Identifying the keyhole stability and pore formation mechanisms in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 321; 118153, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2023.118153

171-23 Yuhang Wu, Qiong Wu, Meng Li, Ju Wang, Dengzhi Yao, Hao Luo, Xizhong An, Haitao Fu, Hao Zhang, Xiaohong Yang, Qingchuan Zou, Shujun Li, Haibin Ji, Xing Zhang, Numerical investigation on effects of operating conditions and final dimension predictions in laser powder bed fusion of molybdenum, Additive Manufacturing, 76; 103783, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103783

158-23 K. El Abbaoui, I. Al Korachi, M.T. Mollah, J. Spangenberg, Numerical modelling of planned corner deposition in 3D concrete printing, Archives of Materials Science and Engineering, 121.2; pp. 71-79, 2023. doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0053.8488

156-23 Liping Guo, Hanjie Liu, Hongze Wang, Valentino A.M. Cristino, C.T. Kwok, Qianglong Wei, Zijue Tang, Yi Wu, Haowei Wang, Deepening the scientific understanding of different phenomenology in laser powder bed fusion by an integrated framework, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 216; 124596, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.124596

154-23 Zhiyong Li, Xiuli He, Shaoxia Li, Xinfeng Kan, Yanjun Yin, Gang Yu, Sulfur-induced transitions of thermal behavior and flow dynamics in laser powder bed fusion of 316L powders, Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 45; 102072, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2023.102072

149-23 Shardul Kamat, Wayne Cai, Teresa J. Rinker, Jennifer Bracey, Liang Xi, Wenda Tan, A novel integrated process-performance model for laser welding of multi-layer battery foils and tabs, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 320; 118121, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2023.118121

148-23 Reza Ghomashchi, Shahrooz Nafisi, Solidification of Al12Si melt pool in laser powder bed fusion, Journal of Materials En gineering and Performance, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s11665-023-08502-3

133-23 Hesam Moghadasi, Md Tusher Mollah, Deepak Marla, Hamid Saffari, Jon Spangenberg, Computational fluid dynamics modeling of top-down digital light processing additive manufacturing, Polymers, 15.11; 2459, 2023. doi.org/10.3390/polym15112459

131-23 Luca Santoro, Raffaella Sesana, Rosario Molica Nardo, Francesca Curà, In line defect detection in steel welding process by means of thermography, Experimental Mechanics in Engineering and Biomechanics – Proceedings ICEM20, 19981, 2023.

128-23 Md Tusher Mollah, Raphaël Comminal, Wilson Ricardo Leal da Silva, Berin Šeta, Jon Spangenberg, Computational fluid dynamics modelling and experimental analysis of reinforcement bar integration in 3D concrete printing, Cement and Concrete Research, 173; 107263, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2023.107263

123-23 Arash Samaei, Zhongsheng Sang, Jennifer A. Glerum, Jon-Erik Mogonye, Gregory J. Wagner, Multiphysics modeling of mixing and material transport in additive manufacturing with multicomponent powder beds, Additive Manufacturing, 67; 103481, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103481

122-23 Chu Han, Ping Jiang, Shaoning Geng, Lingyu Guo, Kun Liu, Inhomogeneous microstructure distribution and its formation mechanism in deep penetration laser welding of medium-thick aluminum-lithium alloy plates, Optics & Laser Technology, 167; 109783, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.109783

111-23 Alexander J. Myers, Guadalupe Quirarte, Francis Ogoke, Brandon M. Lane, Syed Zia Uddin, Amir Barati Farimani, Jack L. Beuth, Jonathan A. Malen, High-resolution melt pool thermal imaging for metals additive manufacturing using the two-color method with a color camera, Additive Manufacturing, 73; 103663, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103663

107-23 M. Mohsin Raza, Yu-Lung Lo, Hua-Bin Lee, Chang Yu-Tsung, Computational modeling of laser welding for aluminum–copper joints using a circular strategy, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 25; pp. 3350-3364, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.122

106-23 H.Z. Lu, L.H. Liu, X. Luo, H.W. Ma, W.S. Cai, R. Lupoi, S. Yin, C. Yang, Formation mechanism of heterogeneous microstructures and shape memory effect in NiTi shape memory alloy fabricated via laser powder bed fusion, Materials & Design, 232; 112107, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112107

105-23 Harun Kahya, Hakan Gurun, Gokhan Kucukturk, Experimental and analytical investigation of the re-melting effect in the manufacturing of 316L by direct energy deposition (DED) method, Metals, 13.6; 1144, 2023. doi.org/10.3390/met13061144

100-23 Dongju Chen, Gang Li, Peng Wang, Zhiqiang Zeng, Yuhang Tang, Numerical simulation of melt pool size and flow evolution for laser powder bed fusion of powder grade Ti6Al4V, Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 223; 103971, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.finel.2023.103971

97-23 Mahyar Khorasani, Martin Leary, David Downing, Jason Rogers, Amirhossein Ghasemi, Ian Gibson, Simon Brudler, Bernard Rolfe, Milan Brandt, Stuart Bateman, Numerical and experimental investigations on manufacturability of Al–Si–10Mg thin wall structures made by LB-PBF, Thin-Walled Structures, 188; 110814, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2023.110814

95-23 M.S. Serdeczny, Laser welding of dissimilar materials – simulation driven optimization of process parameters, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1281; 012018, 2023. doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1281/1/012018

90-23 Lin Liu, Tubin Liu, Xi Dong, Min Huang, Fusheng Cao, Mingli Qin, Numerical simulation of thermal dynamic behavior and morphology evolution of the molten pool of selective laser melting BN/316L stainless steel composite, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s11665-023-08210-y

89-23 M. P. Serdeczny, A. Jackman, High fidelity modelling of bead geometry in directed energy deposition – simulation driven optimization, Journal of Physics: Conference Series, NOLAMP19, 2023.

88-23 Lu Wang, Shuhao Wang, Yanming Zhang, Wentao Yan, Multi-phase flow simulation of powder streaming in laser-based directed energy deposition, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 212; 124240, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.124240

80-23 Mahyar Khorasani, AmirHossein Ghasemi, Martin Leary, David Downing, Ian Gibson, Elmira G. Sharabian, Jithin Kozuthala Veetil, Milan Brandt, Stuart Batement, Bernard Rolfe, Benchmark models for conduction and keyhole modes in laser-based powder bed fusion of Inconel 718, Optics & Laser Technology, 164; 109509, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.109509

78-23   Md. Tusher Mollah, Raphaël Comminal, Marcin P. Serdeczny, Berin Šeta, Jon Spangenberg, Computational analysis of yield stress buildup and stability of deposited layers in material extrusion additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing, 71; 103605, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103605

76-23   Asif Ur Rehman, Kashif Azher, Abid Ullah, Celal Sami Tüfekci, Metin Uymaz Salamci, Binder jetting of SS316L: a computational approach for droplet-powder interaction, Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2023. doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-08-2022-0264

75-23   Dengzhi Yao, Ju Wang, Hao Luo, Yuhang Wu, Xizhong An, Thermal behavior and control during multi-track laser powder bed fusion of 316 L stainless steel, Additive Manufacturing, 70; 103562, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103562

61-23   Yaqing Hou, Hang Su, Hao Zhang, Fafa Li, Xuandong Wang, Yazhou He, Dupeng He, An integrated simulation model towards laser powder bed fusion in-situ alloying technology, Materials & Design, 228; 111795, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.111795

56-23   Maohong Yang, Guiyi Wu, Xiangwei Li, Shuyan Zhang, Honghong Wang, Jiankang Huang, Influence of heat source model on the behavior of laser cladding pool, Journal of Laser Applications, 35.2; 2023. doi.org/10.2351/7.0000963

45-23   Daniel Martinez, Philip King, Santosh Reddy Sama, Jay Sim, Hakan Toykoc, Guha Manogharan, Effect of freezing range on reducing casting defects through 3D sand-printed mold designs, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11112-x

39-23   Peter S. Cook, David J. Ritchie, Determining the laser absorptivity of Ti-6Al-4V during laser powder bed fusion by calibrated melt pool simulation, Optics & Laser Technology, 162; 109247. 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.109247

36-23   Yixuan Chen, Weihao Wang, Yao Ou, Yingna Wu, Zirong Zhai, Rui Yang, Impact of laser power and scanning velocity on microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 738LC alloys fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, TMS 2023 152nd Annual Meeting & Exhibition Supplemental Proceedings, pp. 138-149, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22524-6_15

34-23   Chao Kang, Ikki Ikeda, Motoki Sakaguchi, Recoil and solidification of a paraffin droplet impacted on a metal substrate: Numerical study and experimental verification, Journal of Fluids and Structures, 118; 103839, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2023.103839

30-23   Fei Wang, Tiechui Yuan, Ruidi Li, Shiqi Lin, Zhonghao Xie, Lanbo Li, Valentino Cristino, Rong Xu, Bing liu, Comparative study on microstructures and mechanical properties of ultra ductility single-phase Nb40Ti40Ta20 refractory medium entropy alloy by selective laser melting and vacuum arc melting, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 942; 169065, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2023.169065

29-23   Haejin Lee, Yeonghwan Song, Seungkyun Yim, Kenta Aoyagi, Akihiko Chiba, Byoungsoo Lee, Influence of linear energy on side surface roughness in powder bed fusion electron beam melting process: Coupled experimental and simulation study, Powder Technology, 418; 118292, 2023.

27-23   Yinan Chen, Bo Li, Double-phase refractory medium entropy alloy NbMoTi via selective laser melting (SLM) additive manufacturing, Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2419; 012074, 2023. doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2419/1/012074

23-23   Yunwei Gui, Kenta Aoyagi, Akihiko Chiba, Development of macro-defect-free PBF-EB-processed Ti–6Al–4V alloys with superior plasticity using PREP-synthesized powder and machine learning-assisted process optimization, Materials Science and Engineering: A, 864; 144595, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.144595

21-23   Tatsuhiko Sakai, Yasuhiro Okamoto, Nozomi Taura, Riku Saito, Akira Okada, Effect of scanning speed on molten metal behaviour under angled irradiation with a continuous-wave laser, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 313; 117866, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2023.117866

19-23   Gianna M. Valentino, Arunima Banerjee, Alexander lark, Christopher M. Barr, Seth H. Myers, Ian D. McCue, Influence of laser processing parameters on the density-ductility tradeoff in additively manufactured pure tantalum, Additive Manufacturing Letters, 4; 100117, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.addlet.2022.100117

15-23   Runbo Jiang, Zhongshu Ren, Joseph Aroh, Amir Mostafaei, Benjamin Gould, Tao Sun, Anthony D. Rollett, Quantifying equiaxed vs epitaxial solidification in laser melting of CMSX-4 single crystal superalloy, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 54; pp. 808-822, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s11661-022-06929-2

14-23   Nguyen Thi Tien, Yu-Lung Lo, M. Mohsin Raza, Cheng-Yen Chen, Chi-Pin Chiu, Optimization of processing parameters for pulsed laser welding of dissimilar metal interconnects, Optics & Laser Technology, 159; 109022, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2022.109022

9-23 Hou Yi Chia, Wentao Yan, High-fidelity modeling of metal additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing Technology: Design, Optimization, and Modeling, Ed. Kun Zhou, 2023.

8-23 Akash Aggarwal, Yung C. Shin, Arvind Kumar, Investigation of the transient coupling between the dynamic laser beam absorptance and the melt pool – vapor depression morphology in laser powder bed fusion process, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 201.2; 123663, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.123663

199-22 Md. Tusher Mollah, Raphaël Comminal, Marcin P. Serdeczny, David B. Pedersen, Jon Spangenberg, Numerical predictions of bottom layer stability in material extrusion additive manufacturing, JOM, 74; pp. 1096-1101, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s11837-021-05035-9

198-22 Md. Tusher Mollah, Amirpasha Moetazedian, Andy Gleadall, Jiongyi Yan, Wayne Edgar Alphonso, Raphael Comminal, Berin Seta, Tony Lock, Jon Spangenberg, Investigation on corner precision at different corner angles in material extrusion additive manufacturing: An experimental and computational fluid dynamics analysis, Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, 2022.

197-22 Md. Tusher Mollah, Marcin P. Serdeczny, Raphaël Comminal, Berin Šeta, Marco Brander, David B. Pedersen, Jon Spangenberg, A numerical investigation of the inter-layer bond and surface roughness during the yield stress buildup in wet-on-wet material extrusion additive manufacturing, ASPE and euspen Summer Topical Meeting, 77, 2022.

182-22   Chan Kyu Kim, Dae-Won Cho, Seok Kim, Sang Woo Song, Kang Myung Seo, Young Tae Cho, High-throughput metal 3D printing pen enabled by a continuous molten droplet transfer, Advanced Science, 2205085, 2022. doi.org/10.1002/advs.202205085

180-22 Xu Kaikai, Gong Yadong, Zhang Qiang, Numerical simulation of dynamic analysis of molten pool in the process of direct energy deposition, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10271-7

179-22 Yasuhiro Okamoto, Nozomi Taura, Akira Okada, Study on laser drilling process of solid metal on its liquid, International Journal of Electrical Machining, 27; 2022. doi.org/10.2526/ijem.27.35

175-22 Lu Min, Xhi Xiaojie, Lu Peipei, Wu Meiping, Forming quality and wettability of surface texture on CuSn10 fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, AIP Advances, 12.12; 125114, 2022. doi.org/10.1063/5.0122076

174-22 Thinus Van Rhijn, Willie Du Preez, Maina Maringa, Dean Kouprianoff, An investigation into the optimization of the selective laser melting process parameters for Ti6Al4V through numerical modelling, JOM, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s11837-022-05608-2

171-22 Jonathan Yoshioka, Mohsen Eshraghi, Temporal evolution of temperature gradient and solidification rate in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Heat and Mass Transfer, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s00231-022-03318-8

170-22 Subin Shrestha and Kevin Chou, Residual heat effect on the melt pool geometry during the laser powder bed fusion process, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 6.6; 153, 2022. doi.org/10.3390/jmmp6060153

169-22 Aryan Aryan, Obinna Chukwubuzo, Desmond Bourgeois, Wei Zhang, Hardness prediction by incorporating heat transfer and molten pool fluid flow in a mult-pass, multi-layer weld for onsite repair of Grade 91 steel, U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information, DOE-OSU-0032067, 2022. doi.org/10.2172/1898594

158-22 Dafan Du, Lu Wang, Anping Dong, Wentao Yan, Guoliang Zhu, Baode Sun, Promoting the densification and grain refinement with assistance of static magnetic field in laser powder bed fusion, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 183; 103965, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2022.103965

157-22 Han Chu, Jiang Ping, Geng Shaoning, Liu Kun, Nucleation mechanism in oscillating laser welds of 2024 aluminium alloy: A combined experimental and numerical study, Optics & Laser Technology, 158.A; 108812, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2022.108812

153-22 Zixiang Li, Yinan Cui, Baohua Chang, Guan Liu, Ze Pu, Haoyu Zhang, Zhiyue Liang, Changmeng Liu, Li Wang, Dong Du, Manipulating molten pool in in-situ additive manufacturing of Ti-22Al-25 Nb through alternating dual-electron beams, Additive Manufacturing, 60.A; 103230, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.103230

149-22   Qian Chen, Yao Fu, Albert C. To, Multiphysics modeling of particle spattering and induced defect formation mechanism in Inconel 718 laser powder bed fusion, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 123; pp. 783-791, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10201-7

146-22   Zixuan Wan, Hui-ping Wang, Jingjing Li, Baixuan Yang, Joshua Solomon, Blair Carlson, Effect of welding mode on remote laser stitch welding of zinc-coated steel with different sheet thickness combinations, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, MANU-21-1598, 2022. doi.org/10.1115/1.4055792

143-22   Du-Rim Eo, Seong-Gyu Chung, JeongHo Yang, Won Tae Cho, Sun-Hong Park, Jung-Wook Cho, Surface modification of high-Mn steel via laser-DED: Microstructural characterization and hot crack susceptibility of clad layer, Materials & Design, 223; 111188, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.111188

142-22   Zichuan Fu, Xiangman Zhou, Bin Luo, Qihua Tian, Numerical simulation study of the effect of weld current on WAAM welding pool dynamic and weld bead morphology, International Conference on Mechanical Design and Simulation, Proceedings, 12261; 122614G, 2022. doi.org/10.1117/12.2639074

132-22   Yiyu Huang, Zhonghao Xie, Wenshu Li, Haoyu Chen, Bin Liu, Bingfeng Wang, Dynamic mechanical properties of the selective laser melting NiCrFeCoMo0.2 high entropy alloy and the microstructure of molten pool, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 927; 167011, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.167011

126-22   Jingqi Zhang, Yingang Liu, Gang Sha, Shenbao Jin, Ziyong Hou, Mohamad Bayat, Nan Yang, Qiyang Tan, Yu Yin, Shiyang Liu, Jesper Henri Hattel, Matthew Dargusch, Xiaoxu Huang, Ming-Xing Zhang, Designing against phase and property heterogeneities in additively manufactured titanium alloys, Nature Communications, 13; 4660, 2022. doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-32446-2

119-22   Xu Kaikai, Gong Yadong, Zhao Qiang, Numerical simulation on molten pool flow of Inconel718 alloy based on VOF during additive manufacturing, Materials Today Communications, 33; 104147, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.104147

118-22   AmirPouya Hemmasian, Francis Ogoke, Parand Akbari, Jonathan Malen, Jack Beuth, Amir Barati Farimani, Surrogate modeling of melt pool thermal field using deep learning, SSRN, 2022. doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4190835

117-22   Chiara Ransenigo, Marialaura Tocci, Filippo Palo, Paola Ginestra, Elisabetta Ceretti, Marcello Gelfi, Annalisa Pola, Evolution of melt pool and porosity during laser powder bed fusion of Ti6Al4V alloy: Numerical modelling and experimental validation, Lasers in Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s40516-022-00185-3

112-22   Chris Jasien, Alec Saville, Chandler Gus Becker, Jonah Klemm-Toole, Kamel Fezzaa, Tao Sun, Tresa Pollock, Amy J. Clarke, In situ x-ray radiography and computational modeling to predict grain morphology in β-titanium during simulated additive manufacturing, Metals, 12.7; 1217, 2022. doi.org/10.3390/met12071217

110-22   Haotian Zhou, Haijun Su, Yinuo Guo, Peixin Yang, Yuan Liu, Zhonglin Shen, Di Zhao, Haifang Liu, Taiwen Huang, Min Guo, Jun Zhang, Lin Liu, Hengzhi Fu, Formation and evolution mechanisms of pores in Inconel 718 during selective laser melting: Meso-scale modeling and experimental investigations, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 81; pp. 202-213, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.06.072

109-22   Yufan Zhao, Huakang Bian, Hao Wang, Aoyagi Kenta, Yamanaka Kenta, Akihiko Chiba, Non-equilibrium solidification behavior associated with powder characteristics during electron beam additive manufacturing, Materials & Design, 221; 110915, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110915

107-22   Dan Lönn, David Spångberg, Study of process parameters in laser beam welding of copper hairpins, Thesis, University of Skövde, 2022.

106-22   Liping Guo, Hongze Wang, Qianglong Wei, Hanjie Liu, An Wang, Yi Wu, Haowei Wang, A comprehensive model to quantify the effects of additional nano-particles on the printability in laser powder bed fusion of aluminum alloy and composite, Additive Manufacturing, 58; 103011, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.103011

104-22   Hongjiang Pan, Thomas Dahmen, Mohamad Bayat, Kang Lin, Xiaodan Zhang, Independent effects of laser power and scanning speed on IN718’s precipitation and mechanical properties produced by LBPF plus heat treatment, Materials Science and Engineering: A, 849; 143530, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.143530

101-22   Yufan Zhao, Kenta Aoyagi, Kenta Yamanaka, Akihiko Chiba, A survey on basic influencing factors of solidified grain morphology during electron beam melting, Materials & Design, 221; 110927, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110927

98-22   Jon Spangenberg, Wilson Ricardo Leal da Silva, Md. Tusher Mollah, Raphaël Comminal, Thomas Juul Andersen, Henrik Stang, Integrating reinforcement with 3D concrete printing: Experiments and numerical modelling, Third RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication, Eds. Ana Blanco, Peter Kinnell, Richard Buswell, Sergio Cavalaro, pp. 379-384, 2022.

93-22   Minglei Qu, Qilin Guo, Luis I. Escano, Samuel J. Clark Kamel Fezzaa, Lianyi Chen, Mitigating keyhole pore formation by nanoparticles during laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing Letters, 100068, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.addlet.2022.100068

86-22   Patiparn Ninpetch, Prasert Chalermkarnnon, Pruet Kowitwarangkul, Multiphysics simulation of thermal-fluid behavior in laser powder bed fusion of H13 steel: Influence of layer thickness and energy input, Metals and Materials International, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s12540-022-01239-z

85-22   Merve Biyikli, Taner Karagoz, Metin Calli, Talha Muslim, A. Alper Ozalp, Ali Bayram, Single track geometry prediction of laser metal deposited 316L-Si via multi-physics modelling and regression analysis with experimental validation, Metals and Materials International, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s12540-022-01243-3

76-22   Zhichao Yang, Shuhao Wang, Lida Zhu, Jinsheng Ning, Bo Xin, Yichao Dun, Wentao Yan, Manipulating molten pool dynamics during metal 3D printing by ultrasound, Applied Physics Reviews, 9; 021416, 2022. doi.org/10.1063/5.0082461

73-22   Yu Sun, Liqun Li, Yu Hao, Sanbao Lin, Xinhua Tang, Fenggui Lu, Numerical modeling on formation of periodic chain-like pores in high power laser welding of thick steel plate, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 306; 117638, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2022.117638

67-22   Yu Hao, Hiu-Ping Wang, Yu Sun, Liqun Li, Yihan Wu, Fenggui Lu, The evaporation behavior of zince and its effect on spattering in laser overlap welding of galvanized steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 306; 117625, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2022.117625

65-22   Yanhua Zhao, Chuanbin Du, Peifu Wang, Wei Meng, Changming Li, The mechanism of in-situ laser polishing and its effect on the surface quality of nickel-based alloy fabricated by selective laser melting, Metals, 12.5; 778, 2022. doi.org/10.3390/met12050778

58-22   W.E. Alphonso, M. Bayat, M. Baier, S. Carmignato, J.H. Hattel, Multi-physics numerical modelling of 316L Austenitic stainless steel in laser powder bed fusion process at meso-scale, 17th UK Heat Transfer Conference (UKHTC2021), Manchester, UK, April 4-6, 2022.

57-22   Brandon Hayes, Travis Hainsworth, Robert MacCurdy, Liquid-solid co-printing of multi-material 3D fluidic devices via material jetting, Additive Manufacturing, in press, 102785, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.102785

55-22   Xiang Wang, Lin-Jie Zhang, Jie Ning, Suck-joo Na, Fluid thermodynamic simulation of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in laser wire deposition, 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 2022. doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2021.0159

54-22   Junhao Zhao, Binbin Wang, Tong Liu, Liangshu Luo, Yanan Wang, Xiaonan Zheng, Liang Wang, Yanqing Su, Jingjie Guo, Hengzhi Fu, Dayong Chen, Study of in situ formed quasicrystals in Al-Mn based alloys fabricated by SLM, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 909; 164847, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.164847

48-22   Yueming Sun, Jianxing Ma, Fei Peng, Konstantin G. Kornev, Making droplets from highly viscous liquids by pushing a wire through a tube, Physics of Fluids, 34; 032119, 2022. doi.org/10.1063/5.0082003

46-22   H.Z. Lu, T. Chen, H. Liu, H. Wang, X. Luo, C.H. Song, Constructing function domains in NiTi shape memory alloys by additive manufacturing, Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 17.3; 2022. doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2022.2053821

42-22   Islam Hassan, P. Ravi Selvaganapathy, Microfluidic printheads for highly switchable multimaterial 3D printing of soft materials, Advanced Materials Technologies, 2101709, 2022. doi.org/10.1002/admt.202101709

41-22   Nan Yang, Youping Gong, Honghao Chen, Wenxin Li, Chuanping Zhou, Rougang Zhou, Huifeng Shao, Personalized artificial tibia bone structure design and processing based on laser powder bed fusion, Machines, 10.3; 205, 2022. doi.org/10.3390/machines10030205

31-22   Bo Shen, Raghav Gnanasambandam, Rongxuan Wang, Zhenyu (James) Kong, Multi-Task Gaussian process upper confidence bound for hyperparameter tuning and its application for simulation studies of additive manufacturing, IISE Transactions, 2022. doi.org/10.1080/24725854.2022.2039813

27-22   Lida Zhu, Shuhao Wang, Hao Lu, Dongxing Qi, Dan Wang, Zhichao Yang, Investigation on synergism between additive and subtractive manufacturing for curved thin-walled structure, Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 17.2; 2022. doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2022.2029009

24-22   Hoon Sohn, Peipei Liu, Hansol Yoon, Kiyoon Yi, Liu Yang, Sangjun Kim, Real-time porosity reduction during metal directed energy deposition using a pulse laser, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 116; pp. 214-223. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2021.12.013

18-22   Yaohong Xiao, Zixuan Wan, Pengwei Liu, Zhuo Wang, Jingjing Li, Lei Chen, Quantitative simulations of grain nucleation and growth at additively manufactured bimetallic interfaces of SS316L and IN625, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 302; 117506, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2022.117506

06-22   Amal Charles, Mohamad Bayat, Ahmed Elkaseer, Lore Thijs, Jesper Henri Hattel, Steffen Scholz, Elucidation of dross formation in laser powder bed fusion at down-facing surfaces: Phenomenon-oriented multiphysics simulation and experimental validation, Additive Manufacturing, 50; 102551, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102551

05-22   Feilong Ji, Xunpeng Qin, Zeqi Hu, Xiaochen Xiong, Mao Ni, Mengwu Wu, Influence of ultrasonic vibration on molten pool behavior and deposition layer forming morphology for wire and arc additive manufacturing, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 130; 105789, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2021.105789

150-21   Daniel Knüttel, Stefano Baraldo, Anna Valente, Konrad Wegener, Emanuele Carpanzano, Model based learning for efficient modelling of heat transfer dynamics, Procedia CIRP, 102; pp. 252-257, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2021.09.043

149-21   T. van Rhijn, W. du Preez, M. Maringa, D. Kouprianoff, Towards predicting process parameters for selective laser melting of titanium alloys through the modelling of melt pool characteristics, Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Natuurwetenskap en Tegnologie, 40.1; 2021. 

148-21   Qian Chen, Multiscale process modeling of residual deformation and defect formation for laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Thesis, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA, 2021. 

147-21   Pareekshith Allu, Developing process parameters through CFD simulations, Lasers in Manufacturing Conference, 2021.

143-21   Asif Ur Rehman, Muhammad Arif Mahmood, Fatih Pitir, Metin Uymaz Salamci, Andrei C. Popescu, Ion N. Mihailescu, Spatter formation and splashing induced defects in laser-based powder bed fusion of AlSi10Mg alloy: A novel hydrodynamics modelling with empirical testing, Metals, 11.12; 2023, 2021. doi.org/10.3390/met11122023

142-21   Islam Hassan, Ponnambalam Ravi Selvaganapathy, A microfluidic printhead with integrated hybrid mixing by sequential injection for multimaterial 3D printing, Additive Manufacturing, 102559, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102559

137-21   Ting-Yu Cheng, Ying-Chih Liao, Enhancing drop mixing in powder bed by alternative particle arrangements with contradictory hydrophilicity, Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 104160, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2021.104160

134-21   Asif Ur Rehman, Muhammad Arif Mahmood, Fatih Pitir, Metin Uymaz Salamci, Andrei C. Popescu, Ion N. Mihailescu, Keyhole formation by laser drilling in laser powder bed fusion of Ti6Al4V biomedical alloy: Mesoscopic computational fluid dynamics simulation versus mathematical modelling using empirical validation, Nanomaterials, 11.2; 3284, 2021. doi.org/10.3390/nano11123284

128-21   Sang-Woo Han, Won-Ik Cho, Lin-Jie Zhang, Suck-Joo Na, Coupled simulation of thermal-metallurgical-mechanical behavior in laser keyhole welding of AH36 steel, Materials & Design, 212; 110275, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110275

127-21   Jiankang Huang, Zhuoxuan Li, Shurong Yu, Xiaoquan Yu, Ding Fan, Real-time observation and numerical simulation of the molten pool flow and mass transfer behavior during wire arc additive manufacturing, Welding in the World, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s40194-021-01214-z

123-21   Boxue Song, Tianbiao Yu, Xingyu Jiang, Wenchao Xi, Xiaoli Lin, Zhelun Ma, ZhaoWang, Development of the molten pool and solidification characterization in single bead multilayer direct energy deposition, Additive Manufacturing, 102479, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102479

112-21   Kathryn Small, Ian D. McCue, Katrina Johnston, Ian Donaldson, Mitra L. Taheri, Precision modification of microstructure and properties through laser engraving, JOM, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s11837-021-04959-6

111-21   Yongki Lee, Jason Cheon, Byung-Kwon Min, Cheolhee Kim, Modelling of fume particle behaviour and coupling glass contamination during vacuum laser beam welding, Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, 2021. doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2021.1990658

110-21   Menglin Liu, Hao Yi, Huajun Cao, Rufeng Huang, Le Jia, Heat accumulation effect in metal droplet-based 3D printing: Evolution mechanism and elimination strategy, Additive Manufacturing, 48.A; 102413, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102413

108-21   Nozomi Taura, Akiya Mitsunobu, Tatsuhiko Sakai, Yasuhiro Okamoto, Akira Okada, Formation and its mechanism of high-speed micro-grooving on metal surface by angled CW laser irradiation, Journal of Laser Micro/Nanoengineering, 16.2, 2021. doi.org/10.2961/jlmn.2021.02.2006

105-21   Jon Spangenberg, Wilson Ricardo Leal da Silva, Raphaël Comminal, Md. Tusher Mollah, Thomas Juul Andersen, Henrik Stang, Numerical simulation of multi-layer 3D concrete printing, RILEM Technical Letters, 6; pp. 119-123, 2021. doi.org/10.21809/rilemtechlett.2021.142

104-21   Lin Chen, Chunming Wang, Gaoyang Mi, Xiong Zhang, Effects of laser oscillating frequency on energy distribution, molten pool morphology and grain structure of AA6061/AA5182 aluminum alloys lap welding, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 15; pp. 3133-3148, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.09.141

101-21   R.J.M. Wolfs, T.A.M. Salet, N. Roussel, Filament geometry control in extrusion-based additive manufacturing of concrete: The good, the bad and the ugly, Cement and Concrete Research, 150; 106615, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106615

89-21   Wenlin Ye, Jin Bao, Jie Lei, Yichang Huang, Zhihao Li, Peisheng Li, Ying Zhang, Multiphysics modeling of thermal behavior of commercial pure titanium powder during selective laser melting, Metals and Materials International, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s12540-021-01019-1

81-21   Lin Chen, Gaoyang Mi, Xiong Zhang, Chunming Wang, Effects of sinusoidal oscillating laser beam on weld formation, melt flow and grain structure during aluminum alloys lap welding, Journals of Materials Processing Technology, 298; 117314, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117314

77-21   Yujie Cui, Yufan Zhao, Haruko Numata, Kenta Yamanaka, Huakang Bian, Kenta Aoyagi, Akihiko Chiba, Effects of process parameters and cooling gas on powder formation during the plasma rotating electrode process, Powder Technology, 393; pp. 301-311, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2021.07.062

76-21   Md Tusher Mollah, Raphaël Comminal, Marcin P. Serdeczny, David B. Pedersen, Jon Spangenberg, Stability and deformations of deposited layers in material extrusion additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing, 46; 102193, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102193

72-21   S. Sabooni, A. Chabok, S.C. Feng, H. Blaauw, T.C. Pijper, H.J. Yang, Y.T. Pei, Laser powder bed fusion of 17–4 PH stainless steel: A comparative study on the effect of heat treatment on the microstructure evolution and mechanical properties, Additive Manufacturing, 46; 102176, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102176

71-21   Yu Hao, Nannan Chena, Hui-Ping Wang, Blair E. Carlson, Fenggui Lu, Effect of zinc vapor forces on spattering in partial penetration laser welding of zinc-coated steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 298; 117282, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117282

67-21   Lu Wang, Wentao Yan, Thermoelectric magnetohydrodynamic model for laser-based metal additive manufacturing, Physical Review Applied, 15.6; 064051, 2021. doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevApplied.15.064051

61-21   Ian D. McCue, Gianna M. Valentino, Douglas B. Trigg, Andrew M. Lennon, Chuck E. Hebert, Drew P. Seker, Salahudin M. Nimer, James P. Mastrandrea, Morgana M. Trexler, Steven M. Storck, Controlled shape-morphing metallic components for deployable structures, Materials & Design, 208; 109935, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109935

60-21   Mahyar Khorasani, AmirHossein Ghasemi, Martin Leary, William O’Neil, Ian Gibson, Laura Cordova, Bernard Rolfe, Numerical and analytical investigation on meltpool temperature of laser-based powder bed fusion of IN718, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 177; 121477, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121477

57-21   Dae-Won Cho, Yeong-Do Park, Muralimohan Cheepu, Numerical simulation of slag movement from Marangoni flow for GMAW with computational fluid dynamics, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 125; 105243, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2021.105243

55-21   Won-Sang Shin, Dae-Won Cho, Donghyuck Jung, Heeshin Kang, Jeng O Kim, Yoon-Jun Kim, Changkyoo Park, Investigation on laser welding of Al ribbon to Cu sheet: Weldability, microstructure and mechanical and electrical properties, Metals, 11.5; 831, 2021. doi.org/10.3390/met11050831

50-21   Mohamad Bayat, Venkata K. Nadimpalli, Francesco G. Biondani, Sina Jafarzadeh, Jesper Thorborg, Niels S. Tiedje, Giuliano Bissacco, David B. Pedersen, Jesper H. Hattel, On the role of the powder stream on the heat and fluid flow conditions during directed energy deposition of maraging steel—Multiphysics modeling and experimental validation, Additive Manufacturing, 43;102021, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102021

47-21   Subin Shrestha, Kevin Chou, An investigation into melting modes in selective laser melting of Inconel 625 powder: single track geometry and porosity, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07105-3

34-21   Haokun Sun, Xin Chu, Cheng Luo, Haoxiu Chen, Zhiying Liu, Yansong Zhang, Yu Zou, Selective laser melting for joining dissimilar materials: Investigations ofiInterfacial characteristics and in situ alloying, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 52; pp. 1540-1550, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s11661-021-06178-9

32-21   Shanshan Zhang, Subin Shrestha, Kevin Chou, On mesoscopic surface formation in metal laser powder-bed fusion process, Supplimental Proceedings, TMS 150th Annual Meeting & Exhibition (Virtual), pp. 149-161, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65261-6_14

22-21   Patiparn Ninpetch, Pruet Kowitwarangkul, Sitthipong Mahathanabodee, Prasert Chalermkarnnon, Phadungsak Rattanadecho, Computational investigation of thermal behavior and molten metal flow with moving laser heat source for selective laser melting process, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 24; 100860, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2021.100860

19-21   M.B. Abrami, C. Ransenigo, M. Tocci, A. Pola, M. Obeidi, D. Brabazon, Numerical simulation of laser powder bed fusion processes, La Metallurgia Italiana, February; pp. 81-89, 2021.

16-21   Wenjun Ge, Jerry Y.H. Fuh, Suck Joo Na, Numerical modelling of keyhole formation in selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 62; pp. 646-654, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.01.005

11-21   Mohamad Bayat, Venkata K. Nadimpalli, David B. Pedersen, Jesper H. Hattel, A fundamental investigation of thermo-capillarity in laser powder bed fusion of metals and alloys, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 166; 120766, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120766

10-21   Yufan Zhao, Yuichiro Koizumi, Kenta Aoyagi, Kenta Yamanaka, Akihiko Chiba, Thermal properties of powder beds in energy absorption and heat transfer during additive manufacturing with electron beam, Powder Technology, 381; pp. 44-54, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2020.11.082

9-21   Subin Shrestha, Kevin Chou, A study of transient and steady-state regions from single-track deposition in laser powder bed fusion, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 61; pp. 226-235, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.11.023

6-21   Qian Chen, Yunhao Zhao, Seth Strayer, Yufan Zhao, Kenta Aoyagi, Yuichiro Koizumi, Akihiko Chiba, Wei Xiong, Albert C. To, Elucidating the effect of preheating temperature on melt pool morphology variation in Inconel 718 laser powder bed fusion via simulation and experiment, Additive Manufacturing, 37; 101642, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101642

04-21   Won-Ik Cho, Peer Woizeschke, Analysis of molten pool dynamics in laser welding with beam oscillation and filler wire feeding, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 164; 120623, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120623

128-20   Mahmood Al Bashir, Rajeev Nair, Martina M. Sanchez, Anil Mahapatro, Improving fluid retention properties of 316L stainless steel using nanosecond pulsed laser surface texturing, Journal of Laser Applications, 32.4, 2020. doi.org/10.2351/7.0000199

127-20   Eric Riedel, Niklas Bergedieck, Stefan Scharf, CFD simulation based investigation of cavitation cynamics during high intensity ultrasonic treatment of A356, Metals, 10.11; 1529, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10111529

126-20   Benjamin Himmel, Material jetting of aluminium: Analysis of a novel additive manufacturing process, Thesis, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany, 2020. 

121-20   Yufan Zhao, Yujie Cui, Haruko Numata, Huakang Bian, Kimio Wako, Kenta Yamanaka, Kenta Aoyagi, Akihiko Chiba, Centrifugal granulation behavior in metallic powder fabrication by plasma rotating electrode process, Scientific Reports, 10; 18446, 2020. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75503-w

116-20   Raphael Comminal, Wilson Ricardo Leal da Silva, Thomas Juul Andersen, Henrik Stang, Jon Spangenberg, Modelling of 3D concrete printing based on computational fluid dynamics, Cement and Concrete Research, 138; 106256, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106256

112-20   Peng Liu, Lijin Huan, Yu Gan, Yuyu Lei, Effect of plate thickness on weld pool dynamics and keyhole-induced porosity formation in laser welding of Al alloy, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 111; pp. 735-747, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-05818-5

108-20   Fan Chen, Wentao Yan, High-fidelity modelling of thermal stress for additive manufacturing by linking thermal-fluid and mechanical models, Materials & Design, 196; 109185, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109185

104-20   Yunfu Tian, Lijun Yang, Dejin Zhao, Yiming Huang, Jiajing Pan, Numerical analysis of powder bed generation and single track forming for selective laser melting of SS316L stainless steel, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 58; pp. 964-974, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.09.002

100-20   Raphaël Comminal, Sina Jafarzadeh, Marcin Serdeczny, Jon Spangenberg, Estimations of interlayer contacts in extrusion additive manufacturing using a CFD model, International Conference on Additive Manufacturing in Products and Applications (AMPA), Zurich, Switzerland, September 1-3: Industrializing Additive Manufacturing, pp. 241-250, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54334-1_17

97-20   Paree Allu, CFD simulation for metal Additive Manufacturing: Applications in laser- and sinter-based processes, Metal AM, 6.4; pp. 151-158, 2020.

95-20   Yufan Zhao, Kenta Aoyagi, Kenta Yamanaka, Akihiko Chiba, Role of operating and environmental conditions in determining molten pool dynamics during electron beam melting and selective laser melting, Additive Manufacturing, 36; 101559, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101559

94-20   Yan Zeng, David Himmler, Peter Randelzhofer, Carolin Körner, Processing of in situ Al3Ti/Al composites by advanced high shear technology: influence of mixing speed, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 110; pp. 1589-1599, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-05956-w

93-20   H. Hamed Zargari, K. Ito, M. Kumar, A. Sharma, Visualizing the vibration effect on the tandem-pulsed gas metal arc welding in the presence of surface tension active elements, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 161; 120310, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120310

90-20   Guangxi Zhao, Jun Du, Zhengying Wei, Siyuan Xu, Ruwei Geng, Numerical analysis of aluminum alloy fused coating process, Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Science and Engineering, 42; 483, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/s40430-020-02569-y

85-20   Wenkang Huang, Hongliang Wang, Teresa Rinker, Wenda Tan, Investigation of metal mixing in laser keyhold welding of dissimilar metals, Materials & Design, 195; 109056, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109056

82-20   Pan Lu, Zhang Cheng-Lin, Wang Liang, Liu Tong, Liu Jiang-lin, Molten pool structure, temperature and velocity flow in selective laser melting AlCu5MnCdVA alloy, Materials Research Express, 7; 086516, 2020. doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/abadcf

80-20   Yujie Cui, Yufan Zhao, Haruko Numata, Huakang Bian, Kimio Wako, Kento Yamanaka, Kenta Aoyagi, Chen Zhang, Akihiko Chiba, Effects of plasma rotating electrode process parameters on the particle size distribution and microstructure of Ti-6Al-4 V alloy powder, Powder Technology, 376; pp. 363-372, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2020.08.027

78-20   F.Q. Liu, L. Wei, S.Q. Shi, H.L. Wei, On the varieties of build features during multi-layer laser directed energy deposition, Additive Manufacturing, 36; 101491, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101491

75-20   Nannan Chen, Zixuan Wan, Hui-Ping Wang, Jingjing Li, Joshua Solomon, Blair E. Carlson, Effect of Al single bond Si coating on laser spot welding of press hardened steel and process improvement with annular stirring, Materials & Design, 195; 108986, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108986

72-20   Yujie Cui, Kenta Aoyagi, Yufan Zhao, Kenta Yamanaka, Yuichiro Hayasaka, Yuichiro Koizumi, Tadashi Fujieda, Akihiko Chiba, Manufacturing of a nanosized TiB strengthened Ti-based alloy via electron beam powder bed fusion, Additive Manufacturing, 36; 101472, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101472

64-20   Dong-Rong Liu, Shuhao Wang, Wentao Yan, Grain structure evolution in transition-mode melting in direct energy deposition, Materials & Design, 194; 108919, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108919

61-20   Raphael Comminal, Wilson Ricardo Leal da Silva, Thomas Juul Andersen, Henrik Stang, Jon Spangenberg, Influence of processing parameters on the layer geometry in 3D concrete printing: Experiments and modelling, 2nd RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication, RILEM Bookseries, 28; pp. 852-862, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49916-7_83

60-20   Marcin P. Serdeczny, Raphaël Comminal, Md. Tusher Mollah, David B. Pedersen, Jon Spangenberg, Numerical modeling of the polymer flow through the hot-end in filament-based material extrusion additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing, 36; 101454, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101454

58-20   H.L. Wei, T. Mukherjee, W. Zhang, J.S. Zuback, G.L. Knapp, A. De, T. DebRoy, Mechanistic models for additive manufacturing of metallic components, Progress in Materials Science, 116; 100703, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2020.100703

55-20   Masoud Mohammadpour, Experimental study and numerical simulation of heat transfer and fluid flow in laser welded and brazed joints, Thesis, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, US; Available in Mechanical Engineering Research Theses and Dissertations, 24, 2020.

48-20   Masoud Mohammadpour, Baixuan Yang, Hui-Ping Wang, John Forrest, Michael Poss, Blair Carlson, Radovan Kovacevica, Influence of laser beam inclination angle on galvanized steel laser braze quality, Optics and Laser Technology, 129; 106303, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106303

34-20   Binqi Liu, Gang Fang, Liping Lei, Wei Liu, A new ray tracing heat source model for mesoscale CFD simulation of selective laser melting (SLM), Applied Mathematical Modeling, 79; pp. 506-520, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2019.10.049

27-20   Xuesong Gao, Guilherme Abreu Farira, Wei Zhang and Kevin Wheeler, Numerical analysis of non-spherical particle effect on molten pool dynamics in laser-powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Computational Materials Science, 179, art. no. 109648, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2020.109648

26-20   Yufan Zhao, Yuichiro Koizumi, Kenta Aoyagi, Kenta Yamanaka and Akihiko Chiba, Isothermal γ → ε phase transformation behavior in a Co-Cr-Mo alloy depending on thermal history during electron beam powder-bed additive manufacturing, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 50, pp. 162-170, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2019.11.040

21-20   Won-Ik Cho and Peer Woizeschke, Analysis of molten pool behavior with buttonhole formation in laser keyhole welding of sheet metal, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 152, art. no. 119528, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.119528

06-20  Wei Xing, Di Ouyang, Zhen Chen and Lin Liu, Effect of energy density on defect evolution in 3D printed Zr-based metallic glasses by selective laser melting, Science China Physics, Mechanics & Astronomy, 63, art. no. 226111, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/s11433-019-1485-8

04-20   Santosh Reddy Sama, Tony Badamo, Paul Lynch and Guha Manogharan, Novel sprue designs in metal casting via 3D sand-printing, Additive Manufacturing, 25, pp. 563-578, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.009

02-20   Dongsheng Wu, Shinichi Tashiro, Ziang Wu, Kazufumi Nomura, Xueming Hua, and Manabu Tanaka, Analysis of heat transfer and material flow in hybrid KPAW-GMAW process based on the novel three dimensional CFD simulation, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 147, art. no. 118921, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118921

01-20   Xiang Huang, Siying Lin, Zhenxiang Bu, Xiaolong Lin, Weijin Yi, Zhihong Lin, Peiqin Xie, and Lingyun Wang, Research on nozzle and needle combination for high frequency piezostack-driven dispenser, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 96, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2019.102453

88-19   Bo Cheng and Charles Tuffile, Numerical study of porosity formation with implementation of laser multiple reflection in selective laser melting, Proceedings Volume 1: Additive Manufacturing; Manufacturing Equipment and Systems; Bio and Sustainable Manufacturing, ASME 2019 14th International Manufacturing Science and Engineering Conference, Erie, Pennsylvania, USA, June 10-14, 2019. doi.org/10.1115/MSEC2019-2891

87-19   Shuhao Wang, Lida Zhu, Jerry Ying His Fuh, Haiquan Zhang, and Wentao Yan, Multi-physics modeling and Gaussian process regression analysis of cladding track geometry for direct energy deposition, Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 127:105950, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2019.105950

78-19   Bo Cheng, Lukas Loeber, Hannes Willeck, Udo Hartel, and Charles Tuffile, Computational investigation of melt pool process dynamics and pore formation in laser powder bed fusion, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 28:11, 6565-6578, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/s11665-019-04435-y

77-19   David Souders, Pareekshith Allu, Anurag Chandorkar, and Ruendy Castillo, Application of computational fluid dynamics in developing process parameters for additive manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing Journal, 9th International Conference on 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing Technologies (AM 2019), Bangalore, India, September 7-9, 2019.

75-19   Raphaël Comminal, Marcin Piotr Serdeczny, Navid Ranjbar, Mehdi Mehrali, David Bue Pedersen, Henrik Stang, Jon Spangenberg, Modelling of material deposition in big area additive manufacturing and 3D concrete printing, Proceedings, Advancing Precision in Additive Manufacturing, Nantes, France, September 16-18, 2019.

73-19   Baohua Chang, Zhang Yuan, Hao Cheng, Haigang Li, Dong Du 1, and Jiguo Shan, A study on the influences of welding position on the keyhole and molten pool behavior in laser welding of a titanium alloy, Metals, 9:1082, 2019. doi.org/10.3390/met9101082

57-19     Shengjie Deng, Hui-Ping Wang, Fenggui Lu, Joshua Solomon, and Blair E. Carlson, Investigation of spatter occurrence in remote laser spiral welding of zinc-coated steels, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 140, pp. 269-280, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.06.009

53-19     Mohamad Bayat, Aditi Thanki, Sankhya Mohanty, Ann Witvrouw, Shoufeng Yang, Jesper Thorborg, Niels Skat Tieldje, and Jesper Henri Hattel, Keyhole-induced porosities in Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) of Ti6Al4V: High-fidelity modelling and experimental validation, Additive Manufacturing, Vol. 30, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.100835

51-19     P. Ninpetch, P. Kowitwarangkul, S. Mahathanabodee, R. Tongsri, and P. Ratanadecho, Thermal and melting track simulations of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF), International Conference on Materials Research and Innovation (ICMARI), Bangkok, Thailand, December 17-21, 2018. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 526, 2019. doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/526/1/012030

46-19     Hongze Wang and Yu Zou, Microscale interaction between laser and metal powder in powder-bed additive manufacturing: Conduction mode versus keyhole mode, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 142, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118473

45-19     Yufan Zhao, Yuichiro Koizumi, Kenta Aoyagi, Kenta Yamanaka, and Akihiko Chiba, Manipulating local heat accumulation towards controlled quality and microstructure of a Co-Cr-Mo alloy in powder bed fusion with electron beam, Materials Letters, Vol. 254, pp. 269-272, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.07.078

44-19     Guoxiang Xu, Lin Li, Houxiao Wang, Pengfei Li, Qinghu Guo, Qingxian Hu, and Baoshuai Du, Simulation and experimental studies of keyhole induced porosity in laser-MIG hybrid fillet welding of aluminum alloy in the horizontal position, Optics & Laser Technology, Vol. 119, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.105667

38-19     Subin Shrestha and Y. Kevin Chou, A numerical study on the keyhole formation during laser powder bed fusion process, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol. 141, No. 10, 2019. doi.org/10.1115/1.4044100

34-19     Dae-Won Cho, Jin-Hyeong Park, and Hyeong-Soon Moon, A study on molten pool behavior in the one pulse one drop GMAW process using computational fluid dynamics, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 139, pp. 848-859, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.05.038

30-19     Mohamad Bayat, Sankhya Mohanty, and Jesper Henri Hattel, Multiphysics modelling of lack-of-fusion voids formation and evolution in IN718 made by multi-track/multi-layer L-PBF, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 139, pp. 95-114, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.05.003

29-19     Yufan Zhao, Yuichiro Koizumi, Kenta Aoyagi, Daixiu Wei, Kenta Yamanaka, and Akihiko Chiba, Comprehensive study on mechanisms for grain morphology evolution and texture development in powder bed fusion with electron beam of Co–Cr–Mo alloy, Materialia, Vol. 6, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2019.100346

28-19     Pareekshith Allu, Computational fluid dynamics modeling in additive manufacturing processes, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) 148th Annual Meeting & Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA, March 10-14, 2019.

24-19     Simulation Software: Use, Advantages & Limitations, The Additive Manufacturing and Welding Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2019

22-19     Hunchul Jeong, Kyungbae Park, Sungjin Baek, and Jungho Cho, Thermal efficiency decision of variable polarity aluminum arc welding through molten pool analysis, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 138, pp. 729-737, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.04.089

07-19   Guangxi Zhao, Jun Du, Zhengying Wei, Ruwei Geng and Siyuan Xu, Numerical analysis of arc driving forces and temperature distribution in pulsed TIG welding, Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 41, No. 60, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/s40430-018-1563-0

04-19   Santosh Reddy Sama, Tony Badamo, Paul Lynch and Guha Manogharan, Novel sprue designs in metal casting via 3D sand-printing, Additive Manufacturing, Vol. 25, pp. 563-578, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.009

03-19   Dongsheng Wu, Anh Van Nguyen, Shinichi Tashiro, Xueming Hua and Manabu Tanaka, Elucidation of the weld pool convection and keyhole formation mechanism in the keyhold plasma arc welding, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 131, pp. 920-931, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.11.108

97-18   Wentao Yan, Ya Qian, Wenjun Ge, Stephen Lin, Wing Kam Liu, Feng Lin, Gregory J. Wagner, Meso-scale modeling of multiple-layer fabrication process in Selective Electron Beam Melting: Inter-layer/track voids formation, Materials & Design, 2018. doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.12.031

84-18   Bo Cheng, Xiaobai Li, Charles Tuffile, Alexander Ilin, Hannes Willeck and Udo Hartel, Multi-physics modeling of single track scanning in selective laser melting: Powder compaction effect, Proceedings of the 29th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, pp. 1887-1902, 2018.

81-18 Yufan Zhao, Yuichiro Koizumi, Kenta Aoyagi, Daixiu Wei, Kenta Yamanaka and Akihiko Chiba, Molten pool behavior and effect of fluid flow on solidification conditions in selective electron beam melting (SEBM) of a biomedical Co-Cr-Mo alloy, Additive Manufacturing, Vol. 26, pp. 202-214, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.002

77-18   Jun Du and Zhengying Wei, Numerical investigation of thermocapillary-induced deposited shape in fused-coating additive manufacturing process of aluminum alloy, Journal of Physics Communications, Vol. 2, No. 11, 2018. doi.org/10.1088/2399-6528/aaedc7

76-18   Yu Xiang, Shuzhe Zhang, Zhengying We, Junfeng Li, Pei Wei, Zhen Chen, Lixiang Yang and Lihao Jiang, Forming and defect analysis for single track scanning in selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V, Applied Physics A, 124:685, 2018. doi.org/10.1007/s00339-018-2056-9

74-18   Paree Allu, CFD simulations for laser welding of Al Alloys, Proceedings, Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 15-17, 2018.

72-18   Hunchul Jeong, Kyungbae Park, Sungjin Baek, Dong-Yoon Kim, Moon-Jin Kang and Jungho Cho, Three-dimensional numerical analysis of weld pool in GMAW with fillet joint, International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, Vol. 19, No. 8, pp. 1171-1177, 2018. doi.org/10.1007/s12541-018-0138-4

60-18   R.W. Geng, J. Du, Z.Y. Wei and G.X. Zhao, An adaptive-domain-growth method for phase field simulation of dendrite growth in arc preheated fused-coating additive manufacturing, IOP Conference Series: Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1063, 012077, 2018. doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1063/1/012077

59-18   Guangxi Zhao, Jun Du, Zhengying Wei, Ruwei Geng and Siyuan Xu, Coupling analysis of molten pool during fused coating process with arc preheating, IOP Conference Series: Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1063, 012076, 2018. doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1063/1/012076 (Available at http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1063/1/012076/pdf and in shared drive)

58-18   Siyuan Xu, Zhengying Wei, Jun Du, Guangxi Zhao and Wei Liu, Numerical simulation and analysis of metal fused coating forming, IOP Conference Series: Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1063, 012075, 2018. doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1063/1/012075

55-18   Jason Cheon, Jin-Young Yoon, Cheolhee Kim and Suck-Joo Na, A study on transient flow characteristic in friction stir welding with realtime interface tracking by direct surface calculation, Journal of Materials Processing Tech., vol. 255, pp. 621-634, 2018.

54-18   V. Sukhotskiy, P. Vishnoi, I. H. Karampelas, S. Vader, Z. Vader, and E. P. Furlani, Magnetohydrodynamic drop-on-demand liquid metal additive manufacturing: System overview and modeling, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference of Fluid Flow, Heat and Mass Transfer, Niagara Falls, Canada, June 7 – 9, 2018; Paper no. 155, 2018. doi.org/10.11159/ffhmt18.155

52-18   Michael Hilbinger, Claudia Stadelmann, Matthias List and Robert F. Singer, Temconex® – Kontinuierliche Pulverextrusion: Verbessertes Verständnis mit Hilfe der numerischen Simulation, Hochleistungsmetalle und Prozesse für den Leichtbau der Zukunft, Tagungsband 10. Ranshofener Leichtmetalltage, 13-14 Juni 2018, Linz, pp. 175-186, 2018.

38-18   Zhen Chen, Yu Xiang, Zhengying Wei, Pei Wei, Bingheng Lu, Lijuan Zhang and Jun Du, Thermal dynamic behavior during selective laser melting of K418 superalloy: numerical simulation and experimental verification, Applied Physics A, vol. 124, pp. 313, 2018. doi.org/10.1007/s00339-018-1737-8

19-18   Chenxiao Zhu, Jason Cheon, Xinhua Tang, Suck-Joo Na, and Haichao Cui, Molten pool behaviors and their influences on welding defects in narrow gap GMAW of 5083 Al-alloy, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 126:A, pp.1206-1221, 2018. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.05.132

16-18   P. Schneider, V. Sukhotskiy, T. Siskar, L. Christie and I.H. Karampelas, Additive Manufacturing of Microfluidic Components via Wax Extrusion, Biotech, Biomaterials and Biomedical TechConnect Briefs, vol. 3, pp. 162 – 165, 2018.

09-18   The Furlani Research Group, Magnetohydrodynamic Liquid Metal 3D Printing, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, © University at Buffalo, May 2018.

08-18   Benjamin Himmel, Dominik Rumschöttel and Wolfram Volk, Thermal process simulation of droplet based metal printing with aluminium, Production Engineering, March 2018 © German Academic Society for Production Engineering (WGP) 2018.

07-18   Yu-Che Wu, Cheng-Hung San, Chih-Hsiang Chang, Huey-Jiuan Lin, Raed Marwan, Shuhei Baba and Weng-Sing Hwang, Numerical modeling of melt-pool behavior in selective laser melting with random powder distribution and experimental validation, Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 254 (2018) 72–78.

60-17   Pei Wei, Zhengying Wei, Zhen Chen, Yuyang He and Jun Du, Thermal behavior in single track during selective laser melting of AlSi10Mg powder, Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing, 123:604, 2017. doi.org/10.1007/z00339-017-1194-9

51-17   Koichi Ishizaka, Keijiro Saitoh, Eisaku Ito, Masanori Yuri, and Junichiro Masada, Key Technologies for 1700°C Class Ultra High Temperature Gas Turbine, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical Review, vol. 54, no. 3, 2017.

49-17   Yu-Che Wu, Weng-Sing Hwang, Cheng-Hung San, Chih-Hsiang Chang and Huey-Jiuan Lin, Parametric study of surface morphology for selective laser melting on Ti6Al4V powder bed with numerical and experimental methods, International Journal of Material Forming, © Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature 2017. doi.org/10.1007/s12289-017-1391-2.

37-17   V. Sukhotskiy, I. H. Karampelas, G. Garg, A. Verma, M. Tong, S. Vader, Z. Vader, and E. P. Furlani, Magnetohydrodynamic Drop-on-Demand Liquid Metal 3D Printing, Solid Freeform Fabrication 2017: Proceedings of the 28th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium – An Additive Manufacturing Conference

15-17   I.H. Karampelas, S. Vader, Z. Vader, V. Sukhotskiy, A. Verma, G. Garg, M. Tong and E.P. Furlani, Drop-on-Demand 3D Metal Printing, Informatics, Electronics and Microsystems TechConnect Briefs 2017, Vol. 4

14-17   Jason Cheon and Suck-Joo Na, Prediction of welding residual stress with real-time phase transformation by CFD thermal analysis, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 131–132 (2017) 37–51.

91-16   Y. S. Lee and D. F. Farson, Surface tension-powered build dimension control in laser additive manufacturing process, Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 85:1035–1044, doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7974-5.

84-16   Runqi Lin, Hui-ping Wang, Fenggui Lu, Joshua Solomon, Blair E. Carlson, Numerical study of keyhole dynamics and keyhole-induced porosity formation in remote laser welding of Al alloys, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 108 (2017) 244–256, Available online December 2016.

68-16   Dongsheng Wu, Xueming Hua, Dingjian Ye and Fang Li, Understanding of humping formation and suppression mechanisms using the numerical simulation, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 104, January 2017, Pages 634–643, Published online 2016.

39-16   Chien-Hsun Wang, Ho-Lin Tsai, Yu-Che Wu and Weng-Sing Hwang, Investigation of molten metal droplet deposition and solidification for 3D printing techniques, IOP Publishing, J. Micromech. Microeng. 26 (2016) 095012 (14pp), doi: 10.1088/0960-1317/26/9/095012, July 8, 2016

29-16   Scott Vader, Zachary Vader, Ioannis H. Karampelas and Edward P. Furlani, Advances in Magnetohydrodynamic Liquid Metal Jet Printing, Nanotech 2016 Conference & Expo, May 22-25, Washington, DC.

26-16   Y.S. Lee and W. Zhang, Modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow and solidification microstructure of nickel-base superalloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion, S2214-8604(16)30087-2, doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2016.05.003, ADDMA 86.

123-15   Koji Tsukimoto, Masashi Kitamura, Shuji Tanigawa, Sachio Shimohata, and Masahiko Mega, Laser welding repair for single crystal blades, Proceedings of International Gas Turbine Congress, pp. 1354-1358, 2015.

122-15   Y.S. Lee, W. Zhang, Mesoscopic simulation of heat transfer and fluid flow in laser powder bed additive manufacturing, Proceedings, 26th Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Austin, Texas, 2015. 

116-15   Yousub Lee, Simulation of Laser Additive Manufacturing and its Applications, Ph.D. Thesis: Graduate Program in Welding Engineering, The Ohio State University, 2015, Copyright by Yousub Lee 2015

103-15   Ligang Wu, Jason Cheon, Degala Venkata Kiran, and Suck-Joo Na, CFD Simulations of GMA Welding of Horizontal Fillet Joints based on Coordinate Rotation of Arc Models, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Available online December 29, 2015

96-15   Jason Cheon, Degala Venkata Kiran, and Suck-Joo Na, Thermal metallurgical analysis of GMA welded AH36 steel using CFD – FEM framework, Materials & Design, Volume 91, February 5 2016, Pages 230-241, published online November 2015

86-15   Yousub Lee and Dave F. Farson, Simulation of transport phenomena and melt pool shape for multiple layer additive manufacturing, J. Laser Appl. 28, 012006 (2016). doi: 10.2351/1.4935711, published online 2015.

63-15   Scott Vader, Zachary Vader, Ioannis H. Karampelas and Edward P. Furlani, Magnetohydrodynamic Liquid Metal Jet Printing, TechConnect World Innovation Conference & Expo, Washington, D.C., June 14-17, 2015

46-15   Adwaith Gupta, 3D Printing Multi-Material, Single Printhead Simulation, Advanced Qualification of Additive Manufacturing Materials Workshop, July 20 – 21, 2015, Santa Fe, NM

25-15   Dae-Won Cho and Suck-Joo Na, Molten pool behaviors for second pass V-groove GMAW, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 88 (2015) 945–956.

21-15   Jungho Cho, Dave F. Farson, Kendall J. Hollis and John O. Milewski, Numerical analysis of weld pool oscillation in laser welding, Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology 29 (4) (2015) 1715~1722, www.springerlink.com/content/1738-494x, doi.org/10.1007/s12206-015-0344-2.

82-14  Yousub Lee, Mark Nordin, Sudarsanam Suresh Babu, and Dave F. Farson, Effect of Fluid Convection on Dendrite Arm Spacing in Laser Deposition, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, August 2014, Volume 45, Issue 4, pp 1520-1529

59-14   Y.S. Lee, M. Nordin, S.S. Babu, and D.F. Farson, Influence of Fluid Convection on Weld Pool Formation in Laser Cladding, Welding Research/ August 2014, VOL. 93

18-14  L.J. Zhang, J.X. Zhang, A. Gumenyuk, M. Rethmeier, and S.J. Na, Numerical simulation of full penetration laser welding of thick steel plate with high power high brightness laser, Journal of Materials Processing Technology (2014), doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.03.016.

36-13  Dae-Won Cho,Woo-Hyun Song, Min-Hyun Cho, and Suck-Joo Na, Analysis of Submerged Arc Welding Process by Three-Dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2013. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.06.017

12-13 D.W. Cho, S.J. Na, M.H. Cho, J.S. Lee, A study on V-groove GMAW for various welding positions, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, April 2013, doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.02.015.

01-13  Dae-Won Cho & Suck-Joo Na & Min-Hyun Cho & Jong-Sub Lee, Simulations of weld pool dynamics in V-groove GTA and GMA welding, Weld World, doi.org/10.1007/s40194-012-0017-z, © International Institute of Welding 2013.

63-12  D.W. Cho, S.H. Lee, S.J. Na, Characterization of welding arc and weld pool formation in vacuum gas hollow tungsten arc welding, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2012.09.024, September 2012.

77-10  Lim, Y. C.; Yu, X.; Cho, J. H.; et al., Effect of magnetic stirring on grain structure refinement Part 1-Autogenous nickel alloy welds, Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, Volume: 15 Issue: 7, Pages: 583-589, doi.org/10.1179/136217110X12720264008277, October 2010

18-10 K Saida, H Ohnishi, K Nishimoto, Fluxless laser brazing of aluminium alloy to galvanized steel using a tandem beam–dissimilar laser brazing of aluminium alloy and steels, Welding International, 2010

58-09  Cho, Jung-Ho; Farson, Dave F.; Milewski, John O.; et al., Weld pool flows during initial stages of keyhole formation in laser welding, Journal of Physics D-Applied Physics, Volume: 42 Issue: 17 Article Number: 175502 ; doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/42/17/175502, September 2009

57-09  Lim, Y. C.; Farson, D. F.; Cho, M. H.; et al., Stationary GMAW-P weld metal deposit spreading, Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, Volume: 14 Issue: 7 ;Pages: 626-635, doi.org/10.1179/136217109X441173, October 2009

1-09 J.-H. Cho and S.-J. Na, Three-Dimensional Analysis of Molten Pool in GMA-Laser Hybrid Welding, Welding Journal, February 2009, Vol. 88

52-07   Huey-Jiuan Lin and Wei-Kuo Chang, Design of a sheet forming apparatus for overflow fusion process by numerical simulation, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 353 (2007) 2817–2825.

50-07  Cho, Min Hyun; Farson, Dave F., Understanding bead hump formation in gas metal arc welding using a numerical simulation, Metallurgical and Mateials Transactions B-Process Metallurgy and Materials Processing Science, Volume: 38, Issue: 2, Pages: 305-319, doi.org/10.1007/s11663-007-9034-5, April 2007

49-07  Cho, M. H.; Farson, D. F., Simulation study of a hybrid process for the prevention of weld bead hump formation, Welding Journal Volume: 86, Issue: 9, Pages: 253S-262S, September 2007

48-07  Cho, M. H.; Farson, D. F.; Lim, Y. C.; et al., Hybrid laser/arc welding process for controlling bead profile, Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, Volume: 12 Issue: 8, Pages: 677-688, doi.org/10.1179/174329307X236878, November 2007

47-07   Min Hyun Cho, Dave F. Farson, Understanding Bead Hump Formation in Gas Metal Arc Welding Using a Numerical Simulation, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Volume 38, Issue 2, pp 305-319, April 2007

36-06  Cho, M. H.; Lim, Y. C.; Farson, D. F., Simulation of weld pool dynamics in the stationary pulsed gas metal arc welding process and final weld shape, Welding Journal, Volume: 85 Issue: 12, Pages: 271S-283S, December 2006

Investigation of Mould Leakages in a Gravity Casting

Investigation of Mould Leakages in a Gravity Casting

 

This article was contributed by Gabriele Taricco of CM Taricco and Stefano Mascetti of XC Engineering.

Metal leakages in the original gravity casting mould

몰드 설계는 유체 역학과 금속 응고 패턴뿐만 아니라 주형 자체에서 발생할 수 있는 문제와 응력에 대한 반응을 고려해야 하는 매우 복잡한 작업입니다. 이탈리아에 본사를 둔 주형 제작 업체인 CMTaricco 사는 최근에 새로운 주형 중 하나의 하부에서 금속 누출 문제에 직면했습니다. 주형 누출의 원인은 처음에는 분명하지 않았으며 몇 번의 공정 주기 후에만 나타났습니다. 제작 일정에 차질이 생기고 부품 주조 비용이 급격히 증가하기 때문에 문제가 중요한 것은 분명했습니다.

Investigation of an idea

공정 자체는 주입과 오버플로우 설계인 중력 주조 방식이었기 때문에 유체 역학 부분에서는 문제가 발생할 수 없었습니다. GabrieleTaricco (CMTaricco의 소유주)의 가설은 금속 누출이 주형의 열 손실의 설계 불량에서 기인하여 균일하지 않은 분포를 초래한다는 것이었습니다. 변형률과 그에 따라 주형 바닥에서 크고 원하지 않는 변형이 순환하면서 금속이 유출될 수 있는 중요한 영역의 개방까지 주기적으로 시행되었습니다. 이를 확인하고 문제에 대한 신속한 해결책을 찾기 위해 FLOW-3D시뮬레이션을 실행하여 주형이 가열될 때 발생하는 현상을 정확하게 파악했습니다.

Schematic of a critical area where metal was flowing out of the mould

 

A careful setup, to achieve a fast resolution of the issue

문제의 원인은 신속하게 파악할 수 있어야 했기 때문에 최신 Flow-3D기능을 모두 활용하여 정확한 설정이 필요했습니다. 특히, 채택된 meshing기법은 전통적인 설정과 거의 동일한 정확도를 유지하면서 전산 셀의 수를 크게 줄이는데 매우 도움이 되었습니다. 빠른 시뮬레이션으로 주형 세척에 사용된 첫 번째 방법은 주형 내부의 얇은 캐비티를 직교 축과 정렬하기 위해 주형을 수직 축 주위로 회전시키는 것이었습니다.

Rotating the mould around the vertical axis in order to align the inner thin cavity of the mould

 

두 번째 트릭은 내부 공동 (얇은 벽)에 new conformal mesh기능을 사용하는 한편 전체 도메인에 대해 기존의 더 큰 메쉬 블록을 유지하는 것 이었습니다. The conformal mesh는 open volume과 일치하고, 작은 간극을 갖는 cavity로 제한됩니다.

A global view of the mould with cores and its alignment with the mesh blocks

 

마지막으로, 외부 공간을 주형에 제한하기 위해(현재 구두 상자 모양이 되고, 20도 회전하며, 모델 축과 정렬상태) 일부’ 도메인제거’ 요소가 사용되었습니다.즉, FLOW-3D의 내부 솔리드 모델을 통해 직접 연결됩니다

Domain removing components (yellow) were used to limit the space externally to the mould.

 

나머지 설정은 소프트웨어의 권장 기본값 대부분을 이용하여 기존 체계를 따랐습니다. 이러한 기능과 FLOW-3D의 새로운 하위 도메인 분해 기능 덕분에 설계된 9 000 000 셀을 유체 하위 도메인의 경우에만 1 840 000 셀로, 고체 서브 도메인의 경우 2 430 000 셀로 줄이는 것이 가능했습니다.

 

The analysis

주입 시뮬레이션 후, 양호한 주입 패턴을 보장하기 위해 시뮬레이션의 초점이 열 다이 사이클링 분석으로 리디렉션 되었습니다. 이 경우 설정은 일반 데스크 톱 컴퓨터에서 10개의 생산 사이클을 재현하는 데 1시간이면 간단하고 빠릅니다(i7930 K, 상업적 가치 1500달러). 그 결과 CM의 초기 가설이 확인되었습니다. FlowSight를 사용하여 단일 이미지에서 여러 시점과 횡단면에서 온도 필드를 관찰한 결과 온도가 d라는 것이 분명했습니다. 주형의 침입은 예상되는 변형과 금속 누출을 쉽게 유발할 수 있습니다.

Simulation of the mould’s temperature during the die cyclings

 

Further analysis with the Fluid-Structure Interaction module

 

일단 문제가 확인되고 기술 요원이 향상된 금형 설계를 시작하면 CM Taricco는 다이 상의 응력 및 변형에 대한 FEM 해석을 실행하는 최종 확인을 원했습니다. 이 분석을 수행하기 위해 XC Engineering Srl은 CM이 계산을 설정하고 수행하는 것을 도왔습니다. 분석의 결과는 정확히 CM이 생각하고 있는 것을 보여주었습니다. FLOW-3D는 붓기가 거의 걸리지 않은 금형에서 발견 된 실제 변형과 동일한 위치와 크기를 극도의 정확도로 재현 할 수 있었습니다. 이것은 CM에 대한 좋은 소식이었으며, 실제 주조 조건을 기반으로 실제 금형 변형을 예측하기 위해 설계 단계에서 FSI 모듈을 사용하는 추가 권장 사항을 시행했습니다.

Deformation of the mould during the die cyclings, simulated using the Fluid Structure Interaction model. Deformations are amplified x20.

 

Conclusion

해석결과, CM직원은 CFD솔루션의 온도영역에 대한 모든정보를 사용하여 최적화된 새로운 주형을 설계할 수 있었습니다. 새로운 주형은 열 에너지를 보다 효율적인 방법으로 방출할 수 있었으며 주조물은 수 십번의 공정 주기 후에도 금속 누출의 영향을 받지 않았습니다.

The cast part after mould optimization. No critical leak defects are present.

 

Sand Core Making / 모래 코어 제작

Sand Core Making / 모래 코어 제작

This article on sand core making was contributed by Dr. Matthias Todte and Frieder Semler, Flow Science Deutschland GmbH.

주조 품질에 대한 수요가 증가하고 고성능 구성 요소에 대한 박막형 구조로의 추세로 인해 품질에 대한 요구가 강화되었으며 동시에 모래 코어의 기하학적 복잡성도 증가했습니다. 시뮬레이션은 코어 박스의 설계를 최적화하는 데 도움이 되며, 저온 및 고온 코어 박스를 위한 유기 및 무기 바인더 시스템의 촬영, 가스 처리 및 경화를 위한 강력한 공정 조건을 확립합니다.

기체 주입, 건조 및 템퍼링의 기본 프로세스에 대한 논의는 실험적 검증을 거쳐야 합니다. 그런 다음 주물 결함을 방지하기 위해 코어 사격 공정 시뮬레이션이 필수적이었는지를 보여 줍니다. 마지막으로 코어 박스의 마모와 수명을 예측하는 수치모델을 개발한 연구 프로젝트를 소개합니다.

Water jacket core

Simulation of sand core making processes

Shooting

Shooting Simulation에서 모래로 채워진 타격 헤드가 공기를 통해 가압되고, 이로 인해 공기/모래/실린더/바인더 혼합물로 구성된 “유체”가 생성됩니다. 이 유체는 분사 노즐을 통해 코어 박스로 흐르고 배출 노즐을 통해 상자 밖으로 공기가 배출됩니다. Shooting Simulation의 목적은 코어 박스에 있는 모래의 밀도분포를 높히고 균일하게 하는 것입니다.

촬영 과정에서 모래로 채워진 블로 헤드가 공기를 통해 가압되어 공기/모래/바인더 혼합물로 구성된 “유체”가 생성됩니다. 이 유체는 블로우 헤드에서 분사 노즐을 통해 코어 박스로 흘러 나와 공기를 환기 노즐을 통해 박스 밖으로 밀어냅니다. Shooting 의 목표는 가능한 한 높고 균일하게 코어 박스에 있는 모래의 밀도 분포를 달성하는 것입니다. 변경할 수 있는 프로세스 매개 변수는 분사 압력과 발사 및 배기 노즐의 수와 위치입니다. 시간과 비용을 절약하기 위해 코어의 품질을 저하시키지 않고 가능한 한 노즐을 적게 사용하는 것이 바람직합니다.

Sand density distribution

Sand density distribution after the shooting

시뮬레이션을 사용하여 다양한 사격 및 환기 노즐 구성과 그 구성이 결과 모래 밀도 분포에 미치는 영향을 분석할 수 있습니다. 엔지니어는 속도와 전단 응력을 예측하여 코어 상자의 마모 및 이에 따른 수명에 대한 결론을 도출할 수 있습니다.

Gassing

유기 바인더 시스템에서는 모래가 유기 수지로 코팅됩니다. 이 수지의 경화는 보통 아민이라는 기체에 의해 이루어지는데, 이것은 일반적으로 분사에 사용된 노즐을 통해 주입됩니다. 이 가스는 코어가 모든 부분에서 경화되도록 하기위해 모든부분에 도달할 만큼 길어야 한다. 반면에, 유독 가스를 줄이기 위해서는 가스 배출이 필요이상으로 길어서는 안됩니다.

유기 바인더 시스템에서는 모래가 유기 레진으로 코팅되어 있습니다. 이 레진의 경화는 보통 아민 가스 작용제에 의해 이루어지는데, 아민은 주로 인젝션에 사용되는 노즐을 통해 분사됩니다. 이 가스 주입은 가스가 코어의 모든 부분에 도달할 수 있도록 충분히 길어야 합니다. 코어가 모든 곳에서 경화되도록 하기 위해서입니다. 반면, 가스 배출은 독성 가스를 절약하기 위해 필요 이상으로 길지 않아야 합니다.

Amine concentration core

Amine concentration in a core

시뮬레이션은 시간 경과에 따른 코어의 아민 농도 분포를 예측하며, 이는 코어의 경도와 동일하다. 이를 통해 엔지니어들은 가스 생성 공정에 대한 합리적인 시간 규모를 결정할 수 있습니다.

Drying

주조물의 수가 증가하는 경우, 독성이 있는 유기적 시스템 대신 무기, 수성-기반 바인더 시스템이 사용됩니다. 배기 가스 배출이 없는 코어 생산 공정의 이점 외에도 이 시스템은 주조 공정 중 코어 가스 생산량을 줄여 주조 품질을 향상시킵니다.

모래 코어의 경화를 위해서는 일반적으로 뜨거운 공기가 주입되어 이루어지는 코어에서 물을 제거해야 합니다. 이러한 바인더 시스템의 경우, 코어의 잔류 수분은 경도에 대한 측정 값입니다. 시뮬레이션은 코어를 통과하는 공기의 흐름뿐만 아니라 물이나 증기의 증발과 응축, 뜨거운 공기와 함께 증기의 이동을 모델링 해야 합니다.

아래 이미지는 예측된 잔류 수분과 실제 코어의 강도(또는 손상)의 상관 관계를 보여 줍니다.

Correlation of predicted residual moisture and the damage of a real core

Tempering of core boxes                                                                    

핫 박스 및 크로닝과 같은 특정 코어 제조 공정에서는 가열된 코어 박스에 있는 바인더의 열 반응을 통해 코어의 경화가 이루어집니다. 상자의 가열은 가열 채널과 전기 가열 요소를 사용하여 수행됩니다. 좋은 코어 품질을 위해서는 코어 상자의 균일한 온도 분포가 바람직합니다. 시뮬레이션은 특정 가열 소자 구성에 대한 온도 분포를 시간 경과에 따른 예측하고 발열의 균일성과 원하는 온도에 도달하는 데 필요한 시간을 표시합니다.

Heated core box

Temperature distribution in a heated core box

Validation of the core blowing model

Experiments and simulations for a water jacket core

핵심 shooting 실험은 TU 뮌헨의 파운드리 연구소에서 실시되었습니다. shooting  시간과 압력, 흡입구와 환기구의 수 등의 공정 매개 변수들이 다양하였으며 이들 매개 변수들이 분석된 코어 품질에 미치는 영향이 다양하였다. 실제 코어에서 발생한 결점은 시뮬레이션에서 모래 밀도가 낮은 영역과 상관 관계가 있습니다(아래 그림 참조).

Core blowing validation

Core defects compared to simulated density distribution

Application of the core blowing model : 리어 액슬 하우징의 주조 품질 개선

품질 보증에서 리어 액슬 하우징의 주물 결함을 감지했습니다(아래 그림 참조). 그 결함들은 중심부의 표면 결함의 결과인 것처럼 보였다. 이 가설을 뒷받침하고 코어 표면 품질을 개선하기 위한 조치를 권고하기 위해 시뮬레이션이 수행되었다. 마지막으로, 코어 박스 환기구의 다른 구성(숫자 및 위치)을 통해 주조 품질을 개선할 수 있었습니다.

Casting defects of a rear axle housing

Casting defects of a rear axle housing

Validation surface defects

Correlation of surface defects and simulated density distribution

Research project: Prediction of the lifetime of core boxes

코어 박스는 대부분 폴리우레탄 수지 코팅의 알루미늄으로 제작된다. 사격 과정에서 모래에 의한 코어 박스 표면의 침식은 코어 박스의 수명을 제한하는 요인이다. 프로젝트 목표는 표면 처리가 수명에 미치는 영향을 이해하고 단일 시뮬레이션에서 다수의 샷에 의해 발생하는 침식을 예측할 수 있는 연산 모델을 개발하는 침식 프로세스를 분석하는 것이었다.

일반적인 코어 상자(아래 참조)는 다른 모양의 삽입물로 제작되었습니다.

Core box with different inserts

Core box with different inserts

수치 모델은 코어 박스 벽의 압력과 전단력의 공간적, 시간적 통합에 기초하여 부식에 대한 양을 도출한다. 모형에 의해 예측된 침식은 실험 값과 일치했습니다(아래 그림 참조).

Measured and simulated erosion

Comparison of measured and simulated erosion

Tilt Pour

Tilt Pour

경동 주조에서는 금형이 수평 위치에 있는 동안 용탕이 주입 래들에 주입됩니다. 그런 다음 사전에 설정된 사이클 시간을 사용하여 주조 기계가 수직 위치로 상승하고, 용탕이 느리고 연속적인 주입 속도로 금형으로 들어갈 수 있습니다. 경동 주조 방법은 다양한 주조 형태를 가능하게 하는 런너-게이트 유연성 때문에 일반적인 주조 용도에 적합합니다.

Temperature profile during a tilt pour filling cycle

아래와 같은 예에서는 케이블 탭으로 연결되는 알루미늄 커플러 케이블에 대해 경동 주조의 시뮬레이션을 수행하여, 부품의 무결성과 표면 품질을 보장했습니다. 경동 회전을 완료하는 데 걸리는 시간은 중요합니다. 회전 속도는 FLOW-3D CAST에서 쉽게 수정할 수 있으므로 사용자가 이 속도를 최적화할 수 있습니다. 회전 속도가 너무 빠르면 공기가 유입되어 더 느리게 표면 결함이 나타날 수 있습니다. 온도 프로파일은 최대 및 최소 그래프 값을 각각 액상과 고상 온도로 설정하여 시각화 합니다. 여기서 부품이 반쯤 채워져 있고 용탕 온도가 고상 온도에 가깝지 않기 때문에 조기 응고는 나타나지 않습니다.

Simulation of the tilt pour process using FLOW-3D Cast.

Tilt pour casting simulations

수상 래프팅 장비에 사용되는 경량 알루미늄 부품은 고품질의 마감이 필요하며, 이상적으로 표면이 없고 결함이 없도록 주조됩니다. 이러한 경동 주조 프로세스의 시뮬레이션은 주입 프로세스를 통해 갇힌 표면 산화물 및 침입 공기의 잠재적 영역을 보여줍니다. 이러한 결점의 움직임을 알면 주조 엔지니어가 더 나은 게이트, 런너 및 라이저를 설계하여, 주물 내의 결점을 제거하는 데 도움이 됩니다. FLOW-3D CAST는 독자적인 6자유도 이동 기능을 통해, 금형의 복잡한 경사 순서와 각도 가속도를 시뮬레이션하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다.

Predicting metal casting defects

Surface oxide and entrained air defects in a tilt pour casting

Visualizing non-inertial reference frame motion

 casting with non-inertial reference frame motion on the left and stationary motion on the right

 

 blog 에서 FLOW-3D CAST v4.2의 FlowSight 에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오.

 

Validations

Validations

금속 주조 설계 과정에서 FLOW-3D CAST의 사용은 회사의 비용 절감 방안을 제시하여 수익성을 개선할 수 있습니다. FLOW-3D CAST 는 엔지니어와 설계자에게 경험과 전문지식을 향상시킬 수 있는 강력한 도구가 될 수 있습니다. 보통 수익성은 비용 절감과 비용 회피에서 찾을 수 있습니다. 지금, 품질과 생산성 문제는 제품개발 단계에서 다양한 시뮬레이션 통해 짧은 공정시간, 낮은 비용으로 해결 할 수 있는 방안을 찾을 수 있습니다. 새로운 개발도구인 FLOW-3D CAST의 효율성은 생산이 시작되기 전에 문제를 해결할 수 있는 방안을 제시하여 생산성을 크게 개선할 수 있습니다.

Ladle Pour

샷 슬리브 공정을 최적화하는 것은 고품질 부품을 확보하는 데 필수적입니다. FLOW-3D CAST의 시뮬레이션 결과와 실제 사례의 비교를 통해, 시뮬레이션을 사용하여 엔지니어가 값 비싼 툴링을 제작하기 전에 설계를 개선하는 방법을 강조합니다. FLOW-3D CAST는 프로세스 전반에 걸쳐 유체의 움직임을 정확하게 포착할 수 있으므로, 엔지니어가 실제 레들 주입 공정에서 신속하게 파악할 수 있습니다. 시뮬레이션은 Nemak Poland Sp. z o.o로부터 제공받았습니다.

Gravity Casting

열전대 데이터를 기반으로 한 실제 충진 재구성과 비교 한 중력 주조 시뮬레이션. Courtesy of XC Engineering and Peugeot PSA.

Foundry: Simulating a Flow Fill Pattern


사형 주조 충진중의 X- 레이 검증

X -레이 결과와 FLOW-3D CAST 시뮬레이션 결과를 나란히 비교합니다. A356 알루미늄 합금으로 사형 주조의 3 차원 충진 색상은 금속의 압력을 나타냅니다. 시뮬레이션 결과는 수직 대칭 평면에 표시됩니다. Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, London, 1995.

HPDC: Flow Pattern


Short sleeve validation – 시뮬레이션 결과와 주조 부품, Littler Diecast Corporation의 예

Modeling Air Entrapment


디젤 엔진 용 오일 필터 하우징의 X-ray vs. FLOW-3D CAST 검증.

디젤 엔진 용 오일 필터 하우징의 X- 레이 검증, 380 다이캐스팅 합금. 결과는 혼입 된 공기의 비율로 표시됩니다. X- 레이의 상세한 영역은 최대 다공도 농도를 나타냅니다.

HPDC Filling


FLOW-3D 결과를 실제 부품과 비교하는 HPDC 캐스팅 검증

Short Shot Simulation


실제 주조 부품의 유효성 검사. 스냅 샷과 FLOW-3D CAST 시뮬레이션 결과. 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 : 변속기 하우징, 오일 팬 및 자동차 부품.

HPDC Air Entrapment Defects


Antrametal에 의한 주조 시뮬레이션 대 실험 결과의 성공적인 비교.

Antmetetal의 고객 검증은 FLOW-3D CAST의 Air Entrapment 모델을 사용하여 실험 결과와 시뮬레이션을 비교 한 결과를 보여줍니다. 세탁기 용 전동 모터의 앞 커버의 HPDC입니다. 공기 관련 결함은 이미지의 색상에 정 성적으로 표시됩니다. FLOW-3D CAST 내의 다른 수치 기능에 의해 포착 된 물리적 공기 포켓 또한 명확하게 표현됩니다.

Core Drying


시뮬레이션과 무기 코어의 건조 실험 사이의 BMW에 의한 비교.

Predicting Die Erosion


캐비테이션으로 인한 다이 침식 영역은 FLOW-3D CAST 결과를 실제 사례와 비교하여 올바르게 배치되었습니다.

Predicting Lost Foam Filling


Lost foam L850 블록 벌크 헤드 슬라이스에 대한 실시간 X-ray 및 FLOW-3D CAST 유동 시뮬레이션 결과의 비교. 시뮬레이션은 GM Powertrain의 예입니다.

Porosity Defects


Porosity due to entrained air

Predicting Shrinkage Porosity


A380 diesel engine block casting

 

air-entrapment-defect-prediction

Defect Prediction

Defect Prediction

주조 설계 시 주요 당면 과제는 최종 부품에 결함이 있는지 여부를 결정하는 것입니다. 설계자는 종종 게이트, 러너, 라이저, 주입 온도 및 냉각 크기 조정을 위한 모범 사례를 따름으로써 우수한 품질의 부품을 생산할 수 있습니다. 하지만 오늘날의 비즈니스 환경에서는 이 제품의 장점이 경쟁에서 이길 만큼 좋지 않을 수도 있습니다. 하지만 FLOW-3D CAST의 강력한 결점 예측 도구를 통해 주조 설계자는  짧은시간안에 보다 높은품질을 얻을 수 있을 것입니다.

Air Entrapment

FLOW-3D CAST의 공기 침투 모델은 채우는 동안 금속 주조 시스템에서 발생하는 공기 침입량을 추정하는 데 사용됩니다. 이 모델은 단순한 물리적 메커니즘을 기반으로 하며 뛰어난 예측 변수 또는 다공성입니다. 사용자는 시뮬레이션을 사용하여 공기 침투 결함을 방지하고, 시험 및 오류 과정을 제거할 수 있습니다. Air Entrapment Model에 대한 자세한 내용은 모델링 기능 섹션을 참조하십시오.

FLOW-3D Cast accurately predicts defects due to air entrapment 

Core Gas Defects

Binder loss in two internal cores of a valve iron casting 

FLOW-3D CAST의 코어 가스 모델을 사용하면, 금속 가열로 인한 모래 코어의 수지 바인더 분해 및 코어 가스 진화 과정을 모니터링하여, 코어 가스 배출을 제거할 수 있습니다. 주조물의 일부 바인더 손실은 코어 강도의 손실에 해당합니다. 또한 주조물의 주입 및 동결과 함께 모니터링할 때 이 모델은 용해된 금속에 대한 잠재적인 가스 폭발의 예측 변수이기도 합니다. 이러한 가스 결함 생성 가능성은 코어 가스 흐름 및 코어 가스 압력과 함께 계산됩니다.

 

Die Erosion Defects

FLOW-3D CAST는 고압 다이 캐스팅을 채우는 동안, 공동 현상으로 인한 금형 침식 결함을 정확하게 예측합니다. 금속 압력은 매우 빠른 흐름의 영역에서 금속 증기 압력 아래로 몇 개의 대기를 떨어뜨릴 수 있으며, 이는 공동 현상과 부식을 일으킬 수 있습니다. 공동 현상으로 인한 손상을 예측하는 간단한 방법은 실제로 흐름에 공동 현상 거품을 도입하지 않고도 공동 현상 또는 공동 현상의 가능성을 예측하는 것입니다. FLOW-3D CAST는 공동 현상 압력과 국소 유체 압력의 차이를 살펴봄으로써, 공동 현상의 가능성을 평가합니다. 셀의 위치에서 공동 현상과 금형 침식의 가능성은 이 차이가 클 때 존재하는 것으로 간주되는데, 금형 침식 가능성의 가장 신뢰할 수 있는 징후는 높은 위치의 “핫 스팟” 영역으로, 이 양의 값이 높은 작은 영역입니다.

Microporosity

FLOW-3D CAST는 응고 단계 후반에 발생하는 미세 기공 결함의 발생과 위치를 예측하기 위해 특별히 설계된 모델을 가지고 있습니다. 이 정보를 사용하여 설계를 조정하고 심각한 결점을 방지할 수 있습니다. 주조된 금속 부품은 응고 과정에서 금속이 수축할 때 발생하는 큰 내부 가스 포켓 또는 다공성을 가지고 있기 때문에 사용할 수 없는 경우가 있습니다. 대부분의 대형 다공성은 주조 몰드의 세심한 설계를 통해 제거할 수 있으므로, 특수 영역에 여분의 액체 금속을 보관하여 수축을 촉진할 수 있습니다. 금속이 수축을 보상하기 위해 흐를 수 있는 경우에는 대개 다공성이 발생하지 않습니다. 다공성의 또 다른 유형은 미세 다공성이라고도 하는데, 일반적으로 총 체적이 1%이하인 작은 기포의 분포로 나타나기 때문입니다. 따라서 미세한 기공의 위치와 크기를 예측할 수 있는 수단을 갖는 것이 상당히 흥미로운데, FLOW-3D CAST의 Microporosity 모델은 이러한 목적을 위해 개발되었습니다.

 

Solidification & Shrinkage

FLOW-3D CAST에는 과도한 수축이나 다공성의 응고 및 핀 포인트 영역을 모델링 하기 위한 전체 도구 모음이 있으므로, 이러한 결함을 확인할 수 있는 라이저 위치를 결정할 수 있습니다. 편석을 포함하여, 열로 인한 응력, 마이크로 및 매크로 다공성 등 응고와 관련된 다양한 결점이 있습니다. 정확한 응고 분석을 얻기 위한 중요한 첫번째 단계는 정확한 채우기입니다. 정확한 채우기는 응고 모델링의 초기 조건인 올바른 열 프로필을 캡처합니다. FLOW-3D CAST는 주조 공장이 주조 부품을 보다 신속하게 설계하고 폐기율을 낮출 수 있는 많은 응고 관련 결함을 감지할 수 있습니다.

Surface Oxides

FLOW-3D CAST의 결점 추적 기능을 통해 주조 엔지니어는 주입 공정에서 표면 산화물 결함이 발생할 가능성이 가장 높은 부위를 예측할 수 있습니다. 산화물은 용해된 금속 표면이 공기 중으로 노출되어 형성되며 바람직하지 않은 위치에 놓일 수 있습니다. 결함의 최종 위치는 전체 흐름 조건, 난류 혼합, 유체 분사 및 주입에 따라 달라집니다. FLOW-3D CAST는 이러한 산화물과 최종 위치를 정확하게 추적하여 설계를 개선합니다.

 

Thermal Stress Defect Prediction

FLOW-3D CAST의 열응력 모델을 사용하면 열응력 결점이 발생하는 위치와 주조물이 왜곡되는 방식을 정확하게 예측할 수 있습니다. 강도는 금형과 금속의 응고 과정에서 동시에 계산되며 이들 사이의 상호 작용을 위한 간단한 옵션을 제공합니다. 금속 주조물에서 열응력 결함을 제거할 수 있도록 모델링 기능 섹션에서 Thermal stress evolution 시뮬레이션에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오.

FLOW-3D CAST Suites

FLOW-3D CAST Suites

FLOW-3D CAST v5 comes in Suites of relevant casting processes: 

HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING SUITE

Process Workspace

High Pressure Die Casting

Features

Thermal Die Cycling
– Cooling/heating channels
– Spray cooling
Filling
– Shot sleeve with Plunger
– Shot motion
– Ladles, stoppers
– Venting efficiency
– PQ^2 analysis
– HPDC machine database
Solidification
– Squeeze pins
Cooling


PERMANENT MOLD CASTING SUITE

Process Workspaces

Permanent Mold Casting
Low Pressure Die Casting
Tilt Pour Casting

Features

Thermal Die Cycling
– Cooling/heating channels
Filling
– Tilt pouring
Solidification
– Squeeze pins
Cooling


SAND CASTING SUITE

Process Workspaces

Sand Casting
Low Pressure Sand Casting

Features

Filling
– Permeable molds
– Moisture evaporation in molds
– Gas generation in cores
– Ladle model
Solidification
– Exothermic sleeves
– Chills
– Cast iron solidification
Cooling


LOST FOAM CASTING SUITE

Process Workspaces

Lost Foam
Sand Casting
Low Pressure Sand Casting

Features

Filling
– Permeable molds
– Moisture evaporation in molds
– Gas generation in cores
– Ladle model
– Lost foam pattern evaporation models (Fast model and Full model)
– Lost foam defect prediction
Solidification
– Exothermic sleeves
– Chills
– Cast iron solidification
Cooling

 


ALL SUITES INCLUDE THESE CORE FEATURES:

Solver Engine

  • TruVOF – The most accurate filling simulation tool in the industry
  • Heat transfer and solidification
  • Shrinkage – Rapid Shrinkage model and Shrinkage with flow model
  • Temperature dependent properties
  • Multi-block meshing including conforming meshes
  • Turbulence models
  • Non-Newtonian viscosity (shear thinning/thickening, thixotropic)
  • Flow tracers
  • Active Simulation Control with Global Conditions
  • Surface tension model
  • Thermal stress analysis with warpage
  • General moving geometry w/6 DOF

FlowSight

  • Multi-case analysis
  • Porosity analysis tool

Defect Prediction Tools

  • Gas entrainment model
  • Thermal Modulus output
  • Hot Spot identification
  • Micro and macro porosity prediction
  • Surface defect prediction
  • Shrinkage
  • Cavitation and Cavitation Potential
  • Particle models (Inclusion modeling, collapsed bubble tracking)

User Conveniences

  • Process-oriented workspaces
  • Configurable Simulation Monitor
  • Metal and solid material databases
  • Heat transfer database
  • Filter database
  • Remote solving queues
  • Quick Analyze/Display tool

ALL NEW FLOW-3D CAST v5

ALL NEW FLOW-3D CAST v5

HPC version of FLOW-3D CAST v5 releasedALL NEW FLOW-3D CAST v5 는 금속 주조 시뮬레이션 및 공정 모델링에 있어 큰 발전입니다. 이제 FLOW-3D CAST는 시뮬레이션 할 프로세스를 선택할 수 있으며, 소프트웨어는 적절한 프로세스 매개 변수, 지오메트리 유형 및 합리적인 기본 값을 제공합니다. 이렇게 하면 시뮬레이션 설정이 상당히 간소화됩니다. 또한 FLOW-3D CAST의 강력한 시뮬레이션 엔진과 결함 예측을 위한 새로운 도구는 설계 주기를 단축하고 비용을 절감하는 통찰력을 제공합니다. 대표적인 개발 기능으로 응고 시뮬레이션을 위한 열 계수 및 핫 스팟 식별 출력, 갇혀 있는 가스를 식별하고 환기 효율을 예측하기 위한 결함 채우기 도구 등이 포함됩니다. 그리고 더 빠르고 더 강력한 압력과 및 응력 해소 기능이 모두 포함합니다.

ALL NEW FLOW-3D CAST v5 는 관련 프로세스가 포함된 Suite제품으로 제공됩니다. 영구 금형 제품군은 중력 다이 캐스팅, 저압 다이캐스팅(LPDC), 틸트 주입 주조와 같은 프로세스 작업 공간을 포함합니다. 각 프로세스에 대해 사용자 인터페이스는 특정 프로세스와 관련된 내용만 표시합니다. 모래 주조 Suite에는 중력 사형 주조 및 저압 사형 주조(LPSC)와 같은 프로세스가 포함되어 있습니다. 소실 폼 제품 군에는 사형 주조 Suite의 모든 것과 소실 폼 공정 작업 공간이 포함됩니다. HPDC 제품군은 열 응력 및 변형을 포함하여 고압 다이 캐스팅과 관련된 모든 것을 포함합니다. 각 프로세스 작업 공간 내에서 채우기, 응고 및 냉각과 같은 하위 프로세스는 서로 연결된 시뮬레이션으로, 처음부터 끝까지 차례로 전체 프로세스를 모델링 합니다. 사용자가 그것을 작업장 바닥에서 하는 것처럼. 사용자는 레들을 용융 풀 안에 담갔다가, 숏 슬리브 또는 주입 컵에 옮겨, 전체 이동 및 주입과 같은 단계를 포함하도록 프로세스를 확장할 수 있습니다. LPDC의 경우 프로세스 엔지니어는 도가니의 가압 및 금속 흐름을 주형으로 모델링 할 수 있습니다.  FLOW-3D CAST v5를 사용하면 가능성이 무한해 집니다.

WYSIWYN Process Workspaces

What-You-See-Is-What-You-Need (WYSIWYN) 프로세스 작업 공간은 FLOW-3D CAST의 다기능성을 간소화하여 사용 편의성과 탁월한 솔루션입니다. 대부분의 인터페이스는 사용자가 제공해야 하는 정보만을 요구하고, 사용자 설계 원칙을 적용하여 단순화되었습니다.

FLOW-3D CAST v4.2에 도입된 프로세스 중심 작업 공간은 중력 다이 주조, 저압 주조 및 경사 주입, 모래 등과 같은 영구 금형 공정으로 확장되었습니다. 중력 모래 주조, 저압 모래 주조 및 소실 폼과 같은 주조 공정 지속적인 주조, 투자 주조, 모래 코어 제작, 원심 주조를 포함한 더 많은 공정 작업 공간이 현재 진행 중에 있습니다.

Simulation setup is simplified by only showing the components applicable for a given process.

Types of casting components available in a HPDC simulation. Mold pieces available in a high pressure die casting include cover and ejector dies, sliders, and shot sleeves.

Defect Prediction / 결함 예측

Identify Filling Defects using Particles  결함 예측 및 입자를 이용한 주입 결함 식별

파티클을 사용하는 FLOW-3D CAST v5를 통해 유입된 가스로 인한 충전 결함을 식별하는 것이 훨씬 쉬워 졌습니다. 결함을 식별하기가 훨씬 용이할 뿐만 아니라, 결함 예측에 따른 계산 비용도 크게 절감되었습니다.

붕괴된 가스 지역을 나타내는 보이드 입자가 도입되었습니다. 이전에 붕괴된 가스 영역은 너무 압축되어 수치 메쉬에서 해결할 수 없으면 시뮬레이션에서 사라졌습니다. 보이드 입자는 작은 기포처럼 작용하며 드래그와 압력을 통해 금속과 상호 작용합니다. 주변의 금속 압력에 따라 크기가 변하며, 주입이 끝난 후 최종 위치를 보면 공기 침투 및 산화물로 인한 잠재적인 결함이 있음을 알 수 있습니다.

Predict filling defects caused by entrapped gas using the Particle Model.

Metal/Wall Contact Time 금속/벽 접촉 시간

벽면 접촉 시간은 금형 표면에서 다른 부위보다 금속에 더 오래 노출된 부위를 식별하는 데 유용합니다. 금속 접촉 시간은 금속이 고체 구성 요소와 접촉한 시간을 나타냅니다. 예를 들어 모래 입자가 핵분해 부위의 역할을 하기 때문에 미세 먼지가 발생할 수 있습니다. 개별 솔리드 구성 요소와의 금속 접촉 시간 출력이 모든 구성 요소와의 접촉 시간을 포함하도록 확장되었습니다. 접촉 시간 계산은 출력 탭에서 벽 접촉 시간을 선택하여 활성화합니다.

Identify solidification defects with the new Thermal Modulus output.

Solidification Defect Identification 응고 결함 식별

일반적으로 라이저 크기 조정에 사용되는 열 모듈은 이제 응고 시뮬레이션에서 출력됩니다.

Risers will likely need to be placed on the circled regions.

Hot Spots  핫 스팟

또 다른 결과인 “핫 스팟”은 라이저를 찾고 크기를 조정하며, 응고 관련 결함의 가능성을 식별하는 데 유용합니다. 핫 스팟은 최종적으로 응고된 부위를 나타냅니다. 이것들은 입자들로 표현되고 뜨거운 점 크기에 의해 색깔이 변하기도 합니다. 라이저는 핫 스팟 크기가 가장 큰 곳에 배치해야 합니다.

Porosity Analysis Tool

FlowSight의 새로운 Porosity Analysis Tool은 실제적인 측면에서 porosity-related 결점을 식별합니다. 결점은 이제 순 볼륨, 최대 선형 범위, 모양 인자 및 total count로 식별됩니다.

New defect identification tools allow users to analyze porosity.

Arbitrary 2D Clips 임의 2D 클립

기능 지향적인 2D 클립은 결함을 찾기 위해 전면적으로 살펴 볼 때 유용합니다. 이전에는 클립에 표시된 금속 영역이 솔리드에 의해 점유된 셀로 확장되었습니다. 잡식의 FLOW-3D CAST v5에서 이 클립은 구성 요소를 숨기는 옵션을 선택해야만 열린 공간(예:주조 부품)의 금속을 보여 줄 수 있습니다.

Intensification Pressure 강화 압력

고압 주조 시뮬레이션에 지정된 강화 압력은 이제 매크로 및 마이크로 Porosity모델 모두에 결합되어 형성 사이의 보다 현실적인 관계를 형성합니다. 이러한 결함의 크기 및 플런저에 의해 가해지는 압력의 크기입니다.

Adjusting Shrinkage Porosity 수축 기공 조절

사용자가 금속의 특성을 수정할 필요 없이 수축 다공성의 양과 크기를 미세 조정할 수 있도록 수축 조정 계수가 추가되었습니다. 계수를 사용하면 응고 중에 체적 수축의 양을 전화로 설정하거나 줄일 수 있습니다.

Gas Pressure and Venting Efficiency  가스 압력 및 밴트 효율성 검토

사용자가 충전 결함을 식별하고 다이캐스트에서 밴트 시스템을 설계하는 데 도움을 주기 위해 마지막 국부적인 가스 압력 및 밴트 효율성 검토 결과가 주조 시뮬레이션 출력에 추가되었습니다. 가스 압력은 셀이 금속으로 채워지기 전에 셀의 마지막 보이드 압력을 기록하며, 밴트 효율은 환기구를 배치하는 것이 밴트 위치에서 공기를 배출하는 데 가장 효율적인 영역을 보여 줍니다.

Databases 데이터베이스

주조 공정에서 일반적으로 사용되는 정보의 데이터베이스는 설정 오류를 줄이고 시뮬레이션 workflow 를 개선합니다.

Configurable Simulation Monitor 구성 가능한 시뮬레이션 모니터

시뮬레이션을 실행할 때 발생하는 중요하지만 종종 힘든 작업은 시뮬레이션을 모니터링하는 것입니다. FLOW-3D CAST를 사용하면 다음과 같은 일반적인 시뮬레이션 목표를 모니터링할 수 있습니다.

  • 게이트 속도
    주형 내 고상 분율
    최저/최고 용탕 온도 및 금형 온도
    다양한 프로브 위치에서의 온도
    시뮬레이션 진단(예:시간 스텝, 안정성 한계)

Plotting Capabilities  Plotting기능

이제 시뮬레이션 관리자에는 더 많은 플롯 기능이 포함됩니다. 플롯은 사용자가 구성할 수 있으며 구성은 다른 시뮬레이션에서 사용하기 위해 데이터베이스에 저장됩니다. 사용자는 시뮬레이션 런타임 그래프와 history-data 에서 모니터링할 이력 데이터 변수를 지정할 수 있습니다. 다중 변수를 각 그래프에 입력합니다.

Conforming Meshes

임의 형상의 활성 계산 영역을 정의할 수 있도록 적합한 메쉬 기능이 확장되었습니다. 이는 메쉬 블록이 준수할 수 있는 열린 볼륨과 솔리드 볼륨을 모두 포함하여 계산 도메인의 영역을 정의하는 meshing구성 요소라고 하는 새로운 유형의 지오메트리 구성 요소를 사용합니다.
메쉬 블록은 냉각 채널이나 공동에 선택적으로 조합할 수 있어 사용자가 이러한 기하학적 객체에 대해 최적의 해상도를 선택할 수 있습니다. 이제 확인할 수 있는 메쉬가 FAVORize 탭에 표시될 수 있습니다.

Summary Views of Components/Cooling Channels

FLOW-3D CAST v5의 인터페이스는 주조 시뮬레이션에서 다양한 형상 구성 요소를 꽉 차게 보여줍니다. 2개의 새로운 형상 요약 뷰인 구성 요소 요약 뷰와 냉각 채널 요약 뷰는 기하학적 구성 요소 및 냉각 채널의 플라이 아웃을 제공하여 사용자가 신속하게 수행할 수 있도록 합니다. 중요 설정을 한 눈에 파악하고 필요한 경우 변경 할 수 있습니다.

Under the Hood

FLOW-3D CAST의 많은 강력한 구성 요소들은 Solver Engine이라고 부르는 것 들에서 중요합니다. 아래에서는 이면에서 무거운 작업을 수행하는 데 도움이 되는 몇가지 중요한 사항을 설명합니다.

Thermal Die Cycling (TDC) Model TDC(열 다이 사이클)모델

열 다이 사이클 시뮬레이션의 주입/응고 단계는 균일하지 않은 캐비티 온도를 사용하여 개선할 수 있습니다. 이제 캐비티에 있는 금속의 초기 온도는 재시작 중에 채우기 시뮬레이션을 통해 지정하거나 초기 유체 영역을 사용하는 사용자 정의 분포에서 지정할 수 있습니다. 이 기능은 옵션으로 사용할 수 있는 균일한 초기 금속 온도에 비해 다이 사이클링의 열해석의 정확성과 현실성을 높여줍니다.

Melt temperatures in the casting cavity read from a filling simulation are applied to ejector die during filling/solidification stage of thermal die cycling simulation.

Heat Transfer Coefficient Calculator for Spray Cooling 분사 냉각을 위한 열 전달 계수 계산기

스프레이 유체와 다이 표면 사이의 열 전달 계수(HTC)를 추정하는 것은 어려운 일입니다. 계산 또는 측정을 통해 값을 사용할 수 있는 경우 사용자는 이러한 값을 스프레이 거리 및 각도의 함수로 직접 지정할 수 있습니다. 새로운 기능을 통해 노즐의 스프레이 액의 유량을 기준으로 HTC를 동적으로 계산할 수 있습니다. 단일 조정 계수를 통해 스프레이 유출량을 기준으로 HTC를 미세 조정할 수 있습니다.