Figure 1. Yield strength (YS) and elongation to failure (ETF) of the A356 alloy achieved by various strengthening strategies: foreign particle reinforcement (blue closed squares4–6), grain refinement (black closed circles7,8), alloying (open squares11,12), and optimized casting (green closed triangles11,12). YS and ETF of A356 alloys obtained by combining the RS + PHT route with T6 heat treatment (red stars, the red arrow marks the direction of increasing cooling rate upon RS, the data point marked by the red circle represents the best combination of YS and ETF.). The black and red circles mark the best combination of YS and ETF obtained by rapid solidification at a cooling rate of 100 K/s and the subsequent T6 heat treatment8, and that achieved by combination of the current RS + PHT route with T6, respectively.

Al-Si 합금의 강도-연성 딜레마 극복: RS+PHT 공정으로 주조 부품의 한계를 넘다

이 기술 요약은 B. Dang 외 저자들이 Scientific Reports (2016)에 발표한 논문 “Breaking through the strength-ductility trade-off dilemma in an Al-Si-based casting alloy”를 기반으로 하며, STI C&D의 기술 전문가에 의해 분석 및 요약되었습니다.

키워드

  • Primary Keyword: Al-Si 합금
  • Secondary Keywords: 강도-연성 트레이드오프, 급속 응고(RS), 응고 후 열처리(PHT), 계층적 미세구조, A356 합금, 주조 공정 최적화

Executive Summary

  • The Challenge: Al-Si 주조 합금은 강도를 높이면 연성이 감소하는 고질적인 ‘강도-연성 트레이드오프’ 문제를 가지고 있어 고성능 부품 적용에 한계가 있었습니다.
  • The Method: 상용 A356 합금에 급속 응고(Rapid Solidification, RS) 공정과 응고 후 열처리(Post-solidification Heat Treatment, PHT)를 결합한 새로운 ‘RS+PHT’ 공정을 적용했습니다.
  • The Key Breakthrough: RS 공정의 냉각 속도를 높임에 따라 강도와 연성이 동시에 향상되는 현상을 발견했으며, 이는 기존의 트레이드오프 딜레마를 깨는 획기적인 결과입니다.
  • The Bottom Line: 이 연구는 간단한 공정 추가만으로 Al-Si 합금의 기계적 물성을 극적으로 향상시킬 수 있는 새로운 경로를 제시하며, 이는 항공우주, 자동차 산업에서 고성능 경량 부품 생산의 가능성을 확장합니다.
Figure 1. Yield strength (YS) and elongation to failure (ETF) of the A356 alloy achieved by various strengthening strategies: foreign particle reinforcement (blue closed squares4–6), grain refinement (black closed circles7,8), alloying (open squares11,12), and optimized casting (green closed triangles11,12). YS and ETF of A356 alloys obtained by combining the RS + PHT route with T6 heat treatment (red stars, the red arrow marks the direction of increasing cooling rate upon RS, the data point marked by the red circle represents the best combination of YS and ETF.). The black and red circles mark the best combination of YS and ETF obtained by rapid solidification at a cooling rate of 100 K/s and the subsequent T6 heat treatment8, and that achieved by combination of the current RS + PHT route with T6, respectively.
Figure 1. Yield strength (YS) and elongation to failure (ETF) of the A356 alloy achieved by various strengthening strategies: foreign particle reinforcement (blue closed squares4–6), grain refinement (black closed circles7,8), alloying (open squares11,12), and optimized casting (green closed triangles11,12). YS and
ETF of A356 alloys obtained by combining the RS + PHT route with T6 heat treatment (red stars, the red arrow marks the direction of increasing cooling rate upon RS, the data point marked by the red circle represents the best combination of YS and ETF.). The black and red circles mark the best combination of YS and ETF obtained by rapid solidification at a cooling rate of 100 K/s and the subsequent T6 heat treatment8, and that achieved by combination of the current RS + PHT route with T6, respectively.

The Challenge: Why This Research Matters for CFD Professionals

Al-Si 기반 주조 합금은 우수한 주조성, 낮은 밀도, 높은 중량 대비 강도 등의 장점으로 항공우주 및 자동차 산업에서 복잡한 형상의 부품을 만드는 데 널리 사용됩니다. 하지만 이 합금들의 미세구조는 부드러운 Al 기지와 취성이 강한 공정 Si 상으로 구성되어 있어 근본적인 한계를 가집니다. 강도를 높이기 위해 강화 입자를 추가하거나 미세조직을 제어하면, 필연적으로 연성이 희생되는 ‘강도-연성 트레이드오프(strength-ductility trade-off)’ 딜레마에 빠지게 됩니다. 이는 재료의 파괴 인성을 낮춰 고성능이 요구되는 구조 부품으로의 적용을 제한하는 주요 원인이었습니다. 기존의 급속 응고(RS)나 입자 미세화 기술만으로는 이 딜레마를 완전히 극복하기 어려웠으며, 그림 1의 회색 영역처럼 대부분의 연구 결과가 이 한계 내에 머물러 있었습니다. 따라서 강도와 연성을 동시에 향상시킬 수 있는 새로운 공정 기술의 개발이 절실히 요구되었습니다.

The Approach: Unpacking the Methodology

본 연구에서는 상용 Al-Si 주조 합금인 A356 (Al-7.0Si-0.4Mg-0.1Fe wt.%)을 사용하여 새로운 공정의 효과를 검증했습니다. 연구의 핵심 방법론은 ‘급속 응고(RS)’와 ‘응고 후 열처리(PHT)’의 조합입니다.

  1. 재료 및 용해: 1.5kg의 A356 합금을 전기 저항로에서 용해하고 헥사클로로에탄으로 탈가스 처리를 진행했습니다.
  2. 급속 응고 (RS): 용탕을 953K에서 계단형 구리(Cu) 몰드에 주입하여 다양한 냉각 속도(1.2 K/s ~ 96 K/s)를 구현했습니다. 몰드 내부에 미리 설치된 K-타입 열전대를 통해 응고 시 냉각 곡선을 측정하여 정확한 냉각 속도를 계산했습니다.
  3. 응고 후 열처리 (PHT): RS 공정을 거친 시편을 머플로에서 473K(200°C)의 비교적 낮은 온도로 15분간 열처리했습니다. 이 단계는 응고된 미세구조를 크게 변화시키지 않으면서 기지상 내에 미세 입자 형성을 유도하는 핵심 공정입니다.
  4. T6 열처리 및 기계적 시험: RS+PHT 처리된 시편에 표준 T6 열처리(813K 용체화 처리 + 453K 인공 시효)를 적용하여 물성 변화를 관찰했습니다. 최종적으로 ASTM E-8 표준에 따라 인장 시편을 제작하고, 만능인장시험기를 사용하여 기계적 특성(항복 강도, 인장 강도, 파단 연신율)을 평가했습니다.

The Breakthrough: Key Findings & Data

RS+PHT 공정은 A356 합금의 기계적 물성을 전례 없는 수준으로 향상시켰으며, 이는 기존의 강도-연성 트레이드오프 관계를 완전히 벗어나는 결과입니다.

Finding 1: 강도와 연성의 동시 향상 및 트레이드오프 딜레마 극복

RS+PHT 공정을 적용한 결과, RS 시의 냉각 속도가 증가함에 따라 항복 강도(YS)와 파단 연신율(ETF)이 동시에 증가하는 현상이 명확하게 관찰되었습니다 (그림 2a). 이는 일반적인 금속 재료의 거동과 상반되는 매우 이례적인 결과입니다. 특히, 후속 T6 열처리를 적용했을 때 이러한 경향은 더욱 강화되었습니다. 그림 1에서 볼 수 있듯이, 96 K/s의 냉각 속도로 처리된 시편(빨간색 원으로 표시된 데이터 포인트)은 항복 강도 약 296 MPa, 연신율 21.3%를 기록하며 기존 문헌 데이터를 훨씬 뛰어넘는 성능을 보였습니다. 이는 RS+PHT 공정이 Al-Si 합금의 성능 한계를 돌파할 수 있는 효과적인 경로임을 증명합니다.

Finding 2: 계층적 나노 미세구조 형성 및 그 역할 규명

이러한 획기적인 물성 향상의 원인은 RS+PHT 공정을 통해 형성된 독특한 ‘계층적 미세구조(hierarchical microstructure)’에 있습니다. – Al 기지 내 나노 Si 입자: PHT 처리 후, Al 덴드라이트 내부에 약 20nm 크기의 고밀도 나노 Si 입자들이 분산되어 있는 것이 관찰되었습니다(그림 3b, c). 이 나노 입자들은 소성 변형 시 전위(dislocation)의 이동을 방해하고 저장하는 역할을 하여 재료의 가공 경화 능력을 향상시키고 연성을 높입니다. – 공정 Si 내 나노 Al 입자: 높은 냉각 속도(>20 K/s)에서는 취성이 강한 공정 Si 상 내부에 약 15nm 크기의 나노 Al 입자들이 형성되었습니다(그림 3d). 이 나노 Al 입자들은 공정 Si의 소성 변형(쌍정 및 전위 활동)을 유도하여, 기존에는 쉽게 파괴되던 공정 Si 상의 연성을 부여하는 역할을 합니다.

이 두 가지 나노 스케일 구조가 계층적으로 작용하여, Al 기지는 더 강해지고 공정 Si는 더 연해지면서 합금 전체의 강도와 연성이 동시에 향상되는 시너지를 창출한 것입니다.

Practical Implications for R&D and Operations

본 연구 결과는 Al-Si 합금을 사용하는 산업 현장의 다양한 전문가들에게 실질적인 시사점을 제공합니다.

  • For Process Engineers: 이 연구는 주조 공정에서 냉각 속도 제어와 간단한 저온 열처리(PHT) 추가만으로 최종 제품의 기계적 물성을 체계적으로 향상시킬 수 있음을 보여줍니다. 복잡한 합금 원소 추가 없이 기존 A356 합금으로도 고성능 부품 생산이 가능해져 공정 단순화 및 원가 절감에 기여할 수 있습니다.
  • For Quality Control Teams: 논문의 표 1 데이터는 냉각 속도와 최종 기계적 특성(항복강도, 인장강도, 연신율) 간의 명확한 상관관계를 제시합니다. 이를 바탕으로 특정 냉각 속도 범위를 핵심 공정 변수(KPP)로 설정하고, 이를 만족하는 부품에 대해 새로운 품질 보증 기준을 수립할 수 있습니다.
  • For Design Engineers: RS+PHT 공정으로 달성된 높은 연성(T6 처리 후 최대 21.3%)은 주조 합금이 단조 합금의 영역까지 넘볼 수 있게 합니다. 이는 기존에는 단조 공정으로만 제작 가능했던 고연성 요구 부품을 더 복잡한 형상으로 주조할 수 있게 하여, 부품 통합 및 경량화 설계에 새로운 가능성을 열어줍니다.

Paper Details

Breaking through the strength-ductility trade-off dilemma in an Al-Si-based casting alloy

1. Overview:

  • Title: Breaking through the strength-ductility trade-off dilemma in an Al-Si-based casting alloy
  • Author: B. Dang, X. Zhang, Y.Z. Chen, C.X. Chen, H.T. Wang & F. Liu
  • Year of publication: 2016
  • Journal/academic society of publication: SCIENTIFIC REPORTS
  • Keywords: Al-Si-based casting alloys, strength-ductility trade-off, rapid solidification (RS), post-solidification heat treatment (PHT), hierarchical microstructure

2. Abstract:

Al-Si 기반 주조 합금은 다양한 산업 응용 분야에서 큰 잠재력을 가지고 있습니다. 이러한 합금에 대한 일반적인 강화 전략은 강도-연성 트레이드오프 딜레마로 알려진 연성의 희생을 필연적으로 동반합니다. 본 연구에서는 상용 Al-Si 기반 주조 합금(A356 합금)을 예로 들어, 급속 응고(RS)와 응고 후 열처리(PHT)를 결합한 간단한 경로, 즉 RS + PHT 경로를 통해 이 딜레마를 극복하는 방법을 보고합니다. RS + PHT로 처리된 합금의 항복 강도와 파단 연신율은 RS 시 냉각 속도를 증가시킴에 따라 동시에 향상되며, 이는 후속 T6 열처리에 의해 영향을 받지 않습니다. 딜레마의 극복은 RS + PHT 경로에 의해 형성된 계층적 미세구조, 즉 Al 덴드라이트 내에 고도로 분산된 나노스케일 Si 입자와 공정 Si 내에 장식된 나노스케일 Al 입자에 기인합니다. RS + PHT 경로의 단순성은 산업적 대량 생산에 적합하게 만듭니다. 미세구조 엔지니어링 전략은 다른 Al-Si 기반 합금의 기계적 특성을 조정하는 일반적인 경로를 제공합니다. 또한, A356 합금의 현저하게 향상된 연성은 가공 경화를 통해 재료를 더욱 강화할 수 있을 뿐만 아니라, 재료의 전통적인 고체 상태 성형을 가능하게 하여 이러한 합금의 응용 분야를 확장합니다.

3. Introduction:

Al-Si 기반 주조 합금은 우수한 주조성, 낮은 밀도, 내식성, 높은 중량 대비 강도 및 낮은 열팽창 계수로 인해 항공우주 및 자동차 산업에서 복잡한 형상의 부품에 널리 사용되어 왔습니다. 일반적인 주조 조건에서 Al-Si 기반 주조 합금의 미세구조는 부드러운 Al 덴드라이트와 덴드라이트 간 영역에 형성된 취성 공정(Al + Si) 상으로 주로 구성됩니다. Si 첨가는 주조성을 향상시키는 데 큰 도움이 되지만, 공정(Al + Si) 상의 형성은 Al-Si 기반 주조 합금의 기계적 특성에 해로운 영향을 미칩니다. 한편으로, 공정(Al + Si) 상 내의 조대한 Si 상은 취성이 강하여 Al/Si 계면에서 응력 축적 시 균열이 발생하기 쉽습니다. 다른 한편으로, 응고된 상태의 Al 덴드라이트는 전위 장벽이 거의 없어 소성 변형 시 발생하는 내부 응력이 Al/Si 계면에 쉽게 축적됩니다. 축적된 내부 응력이 임계 응력을 초과하면 Si의 균열이 발생하고 결과적으로 합금의 파괴로 이어집니다. 따라서 Al-Si 기반 주조 합금은 일반적으로 낮은 강도와 낮은 연성을 겪습니다. 외부 입자 강화, 결정립 미세화, 미세 합금화 및 석출 경화와 같은 다양한 전략이 이러한 합금의 기계적 특성을 개선하기 위해 사용되었습니다. 그러나 상용 Al-Si 기반 A356 주조 합금을 예로 든 그림 1에서 볼 수 있듯이, 강도의 증가는 연성의 감소를 필연적으로 희생하며, 이는 구조용 금속에서 강도-연성 트레이드오프 딜레마로 알려져 있습니다. 급속 응고 및 결정립 미세화제 첨가에 의해 실현된 결정립 미세화, 특히 급속 응고는 강도와 연성의 동시 증가를 유발할 것으로 예상되지만, 문헌에 보고된 데이터가 여전히 강도-연성 트레이드오프를 보여주는 음영 영역 내에 있어 그 효과는 제한적인 것으로 간주됩니다.

4. Summary of the study:

Background of the research topic:

Al-Si 주조 합금은 산업적으로 중요하지만, 강도를 높이면 연성이 떨어지는 고질적인 ‘강도-연성 트레이드오프’ 문제를 안고 있습니다. 이는 주로 취성이 강한 공정 Si 상 때문에 발생하며, 고성능 구조 부품으로의 적용을 제한합니다.

Status of previous research:

기존에는 입자 강화, 결정립 미세화, 합금 원소 추가 등 다양한 방법으로 기계적 물성을 개선하려는 시도가 있었으나, 대부분 강도-연성 트레이드오프의 한계를 벗어나지 못했습니다. 급속 응고(RS) 기술 역시 강도와 연성을 동시에 향상시킬 잠재력이 있었지만, 그 효과는 제한적이었습니다.

Purpose of the study:

본 연구의 목적은 급속 응고(RS)와 응고 후 열처리(PHT)를 결합한 새로운 공정을 통해 상용 A356 합금의 강도-연성 트레이드오프 딜레마를 근본적으로 극복하는 것입니다. 이를 통해 강도와 연성이 동시에 향상되는 새로운 미세구조 제어 전략을 제시하고자 합니다.

Core study:

연구의 핵심은 RS+PHT 공정을 통해 A356 합금 내에 ‘계층적 미세구조’를 형성하는 것입니다. 즉, Al 덴드라이트 내부에 나노 Si 입자를, 공정 Si 상 내부에 나노 Al 입자를 형성시켜 각각 가공 경화 능력 향상과 연성 부여 역할을 하도록 설계했습니다. 냉각 속도라는 단일 공정 변수를 조절하여 이러한 미세구조를 제어하고, 그에 따른 기계적 물성의 변화를 체계적으로 분석했습니다.

5. Research Methodology

Research Design:

본 연구는 실험적 설계에 기반합니다. 주요 독립 변수는 급속 응고(RS) 시의 ‘냉각 속도’이며, 종속 변수는 ‘기계적 특성(항복 강도, 인장 강도, 파단 연신율)’과 ‘미세구조’입니다. 냉각 속도를 1.2 K/s에서 96 K/s까지 다양하게 변화시키며 각 조건에 따른 물성과 미세구조의 변화를 관찰했습니다.

Data Collection and Analysis Methods:

  • 미세구조 분석: 광학 현미경(OM), 주사 전자 현미경(SEM), 투과 전자 현미경(TEM)을 사용하여 각 공정 단계별 미세구조 변화를 관찰했습니다. 특히 TEM을 통해 나노 입자의 형상, 크기, 분포 및 결정학적 관계를 분석했습니다.
  • 기계적 특성 평가: 만능인장시험기를 사용하여 상온 인장 시험을 수행하고, 공칭 응력-변형률 곡선을 얻어 항복 강도(YS), 인장 강도(UTS), 파단 연신율(ETF)을 측정했습니다. 각 조건별로 5회 이상 시험하여 데이터의 재현성을 확보했습니다.
  • In-situ TEM: 실시간 투과 전자 현미경(in-situ TEM)을 사용하여 인장 변형 중 나노 입자와 전위의 상호작용을 직접 관찰하여 미세 변형 메커니즘을 규명했습니다.

Research Topics and Scope:

연구의 범위는 상용 A356 Al-Si 주조 합금에 국한됩니다. 주요 연구 주제는 (1) RS+PHT 공정이 A356 합금의 강도-연성 관계에 미치는 영향, (2) 강도와 연성 동시 향상의 원인이 되는 미세구조적 메커니즘 규명, (3) 새롭게 형성된 계층적 미세구조의 열적 안정성 평가입니다.

6. Key Results:

Key Results:

  • RS+PHT 공정을 적용하고 RS 시 냉각 속도를 높이면 A356 합금의 항복 강도와 연신율이 동시에 증가하여 기존의 강도-연성 트레이드오프 딜레마를 극복했습니다.
  • 이러한 물성 향상은 RS+PHT 공정에 의해 형성된 독특한 계층적 미세구조, 즉 Al 덴드라이트 내에 분산된 나노 Si 입자와 공정 Si 상 내에 형성된 나노 Al 입자에 기인합니다.
  • Al 기지 내 나노 Si 입자는 가공 경화를 촉진하고, 공정 Si 내 나노 Al 입자는 취성인 Si 상에 연성을 부여하여 재료의 파괴를 지연시킵니다.
  • 이 계층적 미세구조는 후속 T6 열처리 공정에서도 안정적으로 유지되어, 석출 경화 효과와 시너지를 일으켜 최종 물성을 극대화합니다.
Figure 2. Measured engineering stress-strain curves of the A356 alloys processed by the RS+PHT and the subsequent T6 heat treatment. (a) RS + PHT treated, (b) solid solution treated at 813 K, and (c) artificially aged at 453 K. The curves shown in (b) and (c) correspond to the samples with peak YS values (cf. Supplementary Fig. S1). In order to show the changes in the mechanical properties in different treatment states, same scales of the coordinate axes are adopted in the three plots.
Figure 2. Measured engineering stress-strain curves of the A356 alloys processed by the RS+PHT and the subsequent T6 heat treatment. (a) RS + PHT treated, (b) solid solution treated at 813 K, and (c) artificially aged at 453 K. The curves shown in (b) and (c) correspond to the samples with peak YS values (cf. Supplementary Fig. S1). In order to show the changes in the mechanical properties in different treatment states, same scales of the coordinate axes are adopted in the three plots.

Figure List:

  • Figure 1. Yield strength (YS) and elongation to failure (ETF) of the A356 alloy achieved by various strengthening strategies: foreign particle reinforcement (blue closed squares4–6), grain refinement (black closed circles7,8), alloying (open squares11,12), and optimized casting (green closed triangles11,12). YS and ETF of A356 alloys obtained by combining the RS + PHT route with T6 heat treatment (red stars, the red arrow marks the direction of increasing cooling rate upon RS, the data point marked by the red circle represents the best combination of YS and ETF.). The black and red circles mark the best combination of YS and ETF obtained by rapid solidification at a cooling rate of 100 K/s and the subsequent T6 heat treatment8, and that achieved by combination of the current RS + PHT route with T6, respectively.
  • Figure 2. Measured engineering stress-strain curves of the A356 alloys processed by the RS+PHT and the subsequent T6 heat treatment. (a) RS + PHT treated, (b) solid solution treated at 813 K, and (c) artificially aged at 453 K. The curves shown in (b) and (c) correspond to the samples with peak YS values (cf. Supplementary Fig. S1). In order to show the changes in the mechanical properties in different treatment states, same scales of the coordinate axes are adopted in the three plots.
  • Figure 3. Microstructures of the RS and RS+PHT processed A356 alloys. (a) Typical morphology of the solidification microstructure of A356 alloys (cooling rate upon RS: 96 K/s). (b) SEM image of the A356 alloy processed by RS + PHT route (cooling rate upon RS: 96 K/s); the inset shows the highly dispersed nanoscale Si particles; a few Si particles are associated with rod-like β’ (Mg9Si5) phase. (c) TEM bright field image of a nanoscale Si particle associated with a β’ (Mg9Si5) phase; the upper and lower insets are the electron diffraction pattern taken from the selected area circled by the white dash line and the corresponding image at higher magnification; the cooling rate upon RS of the sample is 96 K/s. (d) TEM bright field image of the eutectic Si decorated by the nanoscale Al particles; the inset is the high resolution TEM image of an Al particle decorated in Si matrix; the cooling rate upon RS of the sample is 96 K/s. (e) The average density of nanoscale Si particles in the interior of Al dendrites measured by counting the number of particles in a specific area from at least three individual SEM images.
  • Figure 4. Development of microstructure of the A356 alloy solidified at a cooling rate of 96 K/s (shown in the upper part) processed by RS+PHT and the subsequent T6 heat treatment (shown in the lower part). The as-solidified microstructure consists mainly of Al dendrites and eutectic Si phase (A). After PHT treatment at 473 K, highly dispersed nanoscale Si particles and nanoscale Al particles appear in the Al dendrites and the eutectic Si phase, respectively (B). Further solid-solution treatment at 813K leads to the extensive spheroidization of eutectic Si, whereas, does not cause significant changes in these nanoscale particles (C). The artificial aging at 453K causes the precipitation of β’ phase in Al dendrites, and again, does not affect the presence of these particles (D).
  • Figure 5. Microstructures of the samples subjected to tensile deformation. (a) Cracking of the eutectic Si formed in the sample solidified at 3 K/s after tensile deformation. (b) Interaction of dislocations and the Si particles in the tensile deformed sample, showing the pinning and storage of dislocations in the interior of Al matrix by Si particles. (c) The morphology of an eutectic Si in the tensile deformed sample; the magnified TEM bright field image and HRTEM image inserted in the upper right corner show the details of a deformation twin in the eutectic Si. (d) Dislocations in the vicinity of nanoscale Al particles decorated in eutectic Si. (e) A HRTEM image of the nanoscale Al particle decorated in Si matrix (left) and the corresponding strain map obtained by geometric phase analysis (right).

7. Conclusion:

요약하자면, 우리는 간단한 RS + PHT 경로를 설계하여 A356 알루미늄 주조 합금의 강도-연성 트레이드오프 딜레마를 성공적으로 돌파하는 계층적 미세구조를 얻었습니다. RS + PHT 경로를 적용함으로써, A356 합금의 YS와 ETF는 RS 시 냉각 속도를 증가시킴에 따라 동시에 증가하며, 이는 RS + PHT 처리 시 형성된 계층적 미세구조, 즉 Al 덴드라이트 내부에 분산된 나노스케일 Si 입자와 공정 Si 상에 장식된 나노스케일 Al 입자에 기인합니다. 전자는 Al 덴드라이트의 가공 경화를 향상시키는 반면, 후자는 공정 Si의 연성화를 유발합니다. 계층적 미세구조는 가열에 대해 현저한 열적 안정성을 보여줍니다. 이는 응고 속도를 증가시킴에 따라 강도와 연성이 동시에 증가하는 추세를 변경하지 않고 T6 열처리를 통해 RS + PHT 처리된 A356 합금의 종합적인 기계적 특성을 추가로 개선할 수 있게 합니다. 현재 설계된 RS + PHT 경로는 중요한 이점을 제공합니다. 첫째, RS + PHT 경로의 단순성은 산업적 대량 생산에 적합하게 만듭니다. 둘째, 미세구조 엔지니어링 전략은 다른 Al-Si 기반 합금의 기계적 특성을 조정하는 일반적인 경로를 제공합니다. 셋째, RS + PHT 처리된 합금의 우수한 연성은 A356 합금의 적용 분야를 확장할 기회를 제공합니다.

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Expert Q&A: Your Top Questions Answered

Q1: PHT 공정 조건을 473K, 15분으로 설정한 특별한 이유가 있습니까?

A1: 네, 이 조건은 두 가지 목적을 균형 있게 달성하기 위해 신중하게 선택되었습니다. 473K(200°C)라는 비교적 낮은 온도는 RS 공정으로 형성된 미세한 덴드라이트 구조가 거칠어지는 것을 방지하면서, RS로 인해 과포화된 Si 원소들이 나노 입자로 석출될 수 있는 충분한 확산 동력을 제공합니다. 15분이라는 짧은 시간은 산업적 효율성을 고려한 것으로, 과포화된 원소와 응고 시 생성된 비평형 공공(vacancy)의 도움으로 이 시간 내에 효과적인 나노 입자 형성이 가능함을 확인했습니다.

Q2: 그림 1의 결과를 보면, RS만 적용했을 때(검은색 원)보다 RS+PHT를 적용했을 때(빨간색 별) 성능이 월등히 뛰어납니다. PHT 공정이 연성 향상에 기여하는 핵심 메커니즘은 무엇입니까?

A2: PHT 공정은 연성 향상에 두 가지 핵심적인 미세구조 변화를 유도합니다. 첫째, Al 기지 내에 나노 Si 입자를 형성시켜 변형 시 전위들이 이 입자들에 의해 얽히고 저장되도록 합니다(그림 5b). 이는 국부적인 응력 집중을 완화하고 재료 전체에 변형을 고르게 분산시켜 가공 경화 능력을 높이고 파괴를 지연시킵니다. 둘째, 높은 냉각 속도 조건에서는 취성인 공정 Si 상 내부에 나노 Al 입자를 형성시켜 Si 상 자체의 변형을 가능하게 합니다(그림 5c, d). 이로 인해 기존에는 파괴의 시작점이었던 공정 Si가 연성을 갖게 되어 합금 전체의 연신율을 극적으로 향상시킵니다.

Q3: 새롭게 형성된 계층적 나노 구조는 T6 열처리 같은 고온 공정에서도 안정적인가요?

A3: 네, 매우 안정적입니다. 그림 4는 813K(540°C)의 고온 용체화 처리(C)와 453K(180°C)의 인공 시효(D)를 거친 후에도 Al 기지 내 나노 Si 입자와 공정 Si 내 나노 Al 입자가 거의 변화 없이 유지되는 것을 보여줍니다. 이러한 뛰어난 열적 안정성은 이 나노 입자들이 비평형 공공의 도움으로 저온에서 형성된 후, 공공이 소멸되면서 추가적인 성장이 억제되기 때문으로 설명됩니다. 이 안정성 덕분에 T6 열처리를 통한 석출 경화 효과를 추가로 얻으면서도 RS+PHT로 확보한 우수한 강도-연성 조합을 유지할 수 있습니다.

Q4: 냉각 속도가 높을수록 Al 기지 내 나노 Si 입자의 밀도가 증가하는(그림 3e) 이유는 무엇입니까?

A4: 이는 급속 응고(RS)의 ‘용질 포획(solute trapping)’ 효과 때문입니다. 냉각 속도가 빠를수록 응고 계면이 빠르게 이동하여, 평형 상태에서는 석출되어야 할 Si 원자들이 Al 기지 내에 고용될 시간이 없이 그대로 갇히게 됩니다. 따라서 냉각 속도가 높을수록 Al 기지에 과포화되는 Si의 양이 증가하고, 이는 후속 PHT 공정에서 더 높은 밀도의 나노 Si 입자를 형성할 수 있는 구동력으로 작용합니다.

Q5: 이 기술이 실제 산업 현장에 적용될 때 가장 큰 장점은 무엇이라고 생각하십니까?

A5: 가장 큰 장점은 ‘단순성’과 ‘확장성’입니다. 이 기술은 고가의 합금 원소를 추가하거나 복잡한 장비를 요구하지 않습니다. 단지 주조 시 냉각 속도를 제어하고(예: 금형 재질 변경, 냉각 채널 설계), 간단한 저온 열처리 공정을 추가하는 것만으로 기존 합금의 성능을 극대화할 수 있습니다. 또한, 이 원리는 A356뿐만 아니라 다른 Al-Si 기반 합금에도 보편적으로 적용될 수 있어, 다양한 산업 분야에서 맞춤형 고성능 부품을 생산하는 데 활용될 수 있는 높은 잠재력을 가집니다.

Conclusion: Paving the Way for Higher Quality and Productivity

본 연구는 간단한 RS+PHT 공정을 통해 상용 Al-Si 합금이 가진 고질적인 강도-연성 트레이드오프 딜레마를 성공적으로 극복할 수 있음을 입증했습니다. 계층적 나노 미세구조의 형성은 강도와 연성을 동시에 향상시키는 핵심 메커니즘으로, 이는 항공우주, 자동차 등 고성능 경량 부품이 요구되는 산업에 새로운 가능성을 제시합니다. 이 연구 결과는 주조 공정의 정밀한 제어가 최종 제품의 품질을 얼마나 획기적으로 바꿀 수 있는지를 보여주는 명확한 사례입니다.

STI C&D는 최신 산업 연구 결과를 적용하여 고객이 더 높은 생산성과 품질을 달성할 수 있도록 돕는 데 전념하고 있습니다. 이 논문에서 논의된 과제가 귀사의 운영 목표와 일치한다면, 저희 엔지니어링 팀에 연락하여 이러한 원칙을 귀사의 부품에 어떻게 구현할 수 있는지 논의해 보십시오.

(주)에스티아이씨앤디에서는 고객이 수치해석을 직접 수행하고 싶지만 경험이 없거나, 시간이 없어서 용역을 통해 수치해석 결과를 얻고자 하는 경우 전문 엔지니어를 통해 CFD consulting services를 제공합니다. 귀하께서 당면하고 있는 연구프로젝트를 최소의 비용으로, 최적의 해결방안을 찾을 수 있도록 지원합니다.

  • 연락처 : 02-2026-0450
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  • This content is a summary and analysis based on the paper “Breaking through the strength-ductility trade-off dilemma in an Al-Si-based casting alloy” by “B. Dang, et al.”.
  • Source: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30874

This material is for informational purposes only. Unauthorized commercial use is prohibited. Copyright © 2025 STI C&D. All rights reserved.

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Fig. 3　Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for measurement of mold lling.

소모성 주형 주조(EPC) 공정의 코팅 투과성: 용탕 속도 제어로 주조 결함을 줄이는 방법

이 기술 요약은 Sadatoshi Koroyasu가 Japan Foundry Engineering Society (2016)에 발표한 논문 “Effect of Coat Permeability on Melt Velocity of Molten Aluminum Alloy in Expendable Pattern Casting Process”를 기반으로, STI C&D에서 기술 전문가를 위해 분석 및 요약하였습니다.

키워드

  • Primary Keyword: 소모성 주형 주조 공정에서의 코팅 투과성
  • Secondary Keywords: 용융 알루미늄 합금, 용탕 속도, 주형 충전, EPS 패턴, 주조 결함, 가스 배출

Executive Summary

  • The Challenge: 알루미늄 합금의 소모성 주형 주조(EPC) 공정에서 용탕 속도를 정밀하게 제어하는 것은 미충전이나 잔류물 혼입과 같은 결함을 방지하는 데 매우 중요하지만, 핵심 변수인 코팅 투과성의 영향은 정량적으로 충분히 이해되지 않았습니다.
  • The Method: 8종류의 코팅재에 대한 투과성을 측정하고, 이 코팅재들을 사용하여 다양한 조건(EPS 발포 배율, 주입 온도, 주물 두께)에서 알루미늄 합금 평판을 주조하여 코팅 투과성과 용탕 속도 간의 관계를 실험적으로 분석했습니다.
  • The Key Breakthrough: 코팅 투과성이 증가하면 용탕 속도도 증가하지만, 특정 수준(K≈2) 이상의 고투과성 영역에서는 용탕 속도의 증가율이 현저히 둔화되는 것을 발견했으며, 이는 가스 배출 외에 다른 요인이 속도를 제한함을 시사합니다.
  • The Bottom Line: 주조 품질 향상을 위해 코팅 투과성을 최적화하는 것이 중요하지만, 단순히 투과성을 극대화하는 것만으로는 비례적인 용탕 속도 증가를 기대할 수 없으므로, 다른 공정 변수와 함께 균형 잡힌 접근이 필요합니다.

The Challenge: Why This Research Matters for CFD Professionals

소모성 주형 주조(Expendable Pattern Casting, EPC) 공정은 복잡한 형상의 주물을 분할 없이 일체형으로 생산할 수 있어 후공정 감소와 원가 절감에 매우 매력적인 기술입니다. 특히 바인더를 사용하지 않는 건조사(dry sand)를 사용하므로 친환경적이며 재활용률도 높습니다.

그러나 EPC 공정은 용탕이 스티로폼(EPS) 패턴을 열분해 및 액화시키면서 주형을 채우기 때문에 기존의 빈 공간(cavity)을 채우는 주조 방식보다 충전 메커니즘이 훨씬 복잡합니다. 특히 알루미늄 합금 주조 시, 용탕 속도가 너무 느리면 용탕 선단의 온도 저하로 인한 미충전(misrun) 결함이 발생하기 쉽고, 반대로 너무 빠르면 분해되지 않은 패턴 조각이 용탕 내에 갇혀 내부 잔류물 결함을 유발할 수 있습니다.

이 과정에서 패턴 분해 시 발생하는 가스와 액상 수지는 코팅층을 통해 건조사로 배출되므로, 코팅의 투과성(permeability)은 용탕 충전 속도에 결정적인 영향을 미칩니다. 하지만 코팅 투과성과 용탕 속도 사이의 관계는 단순한 비례 관계가 아니며, 광범위한 투과성 영역에 대한 정량적인 데이터와 심층적인 이해가 부족한 실정이었습니다. 이러한 지식의 부재는 공정 최적화를 어렵게 하고 주조 결함 발생률을 높이는 주요 원인이었습니다.

Fig. 1　Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus for coat permeability.
Fig. 1　Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus for coat permeability.

The Approach: Unpacking the Methodology

본 연구는 코팅 투과성이 용융 알루미늄 합금의 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향을 정량적으로 규명하기 위해 체계적인 실험을 설계했습니다.

  • 코팅 투과성 측정: 연구진은 공기 펌프, 유량계(rotameter), 시험편 홀더, 수주 압력계(H₂O manometer)로 구성된 장치(Fig. 1)를 사용하여 8종류의 코팅에 대한 투과성을 측정했습니다. 약 2-3mm 두께의 균일한 원형 코팅 시험편(Fig. 2)을 제작하고, 코팅층을 통과하는 공기 유량과 코팅층 양단의 압력 차이를 측정했습니다. 이 선형 관계의 기울기로부터 Darcy의 법칙에 기반한 코팅 투과성(K) 값을 계산했습니다. 사용된 코팅은 저투과성인 운모(mica) 기반 코팅 1종(Coat A)과 골재 직경을 달리하여 투과성을 조절한 실리카 기반 코팅 7종(Coat B-H)입니다.
  • 용탕 속도 측정: 내경 200mm, 깊이 300mm의 강철 주형 플라스크를 사용한 하주식(bottom pouring) 주조 시스템(Fig. 3)을 구축했습니다. 70mm(폭) x 200mm(높이) x 10mm(두께)의 평판형 EPS 패턴을 사용했으며, 일부 실험에서는 5mm 두께의 패턴도 사용되었습니다. 발포 배율은 30배, 60배, 100배 세 종류를 적용했습니다. 패턴의 탕구로부터 10, 55, 100, 145, 190mm 지점에 텅스텐 와이어로 제작된 접촉 센서(touch sensor)를 설치하여 용탕이 각 지점에 도달하는 시간(ta)을 정밀하게 측정했습니다(Fig. 4).
  • 주요 변수: 실험에서는 8종류의 코팅 투과성 외에도 ▲EPS 패턴의 발포 배율(30, 60, 100배) ▲주입 온도(973K, 1073K) ▲주물 두께(5mm, 10mm)를 주요 변수로 설정하여 이들이 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향을 종합적으로 평가했습니다. 주조 합금으로는 JIS AC2A(A319 상당) 알루미늄 합금을 사용했습니다.
Fig. 2　Schematic diagram of test piece holder for coat permeability.
Fig. 2　Schematic diagram of test piece holder for coat permeability.

The Breakthrough: Key Findings & Data

Finding 1: 코팅 투과성과 용탕 속도의 비선형적 관계

코팅 투과성은 용탕 속도에 직접적인 영향을 미치지만, 그 관계는 단순한 선형이 아니었습니다. 연구 결과, 코팅 투과성(K)이 증가함에 따라 용탕 속도(u)도 증가하는 경향을 보였습니다. 하지만 이 증가는 특정 구간에서 뚜렷한 변화를 보였습니다.

  • Figure 9에 따르면, 코팅 투과성이 상대적으로 낮은 영역(K < 약 2)에서는 투과성이 증가함에 따라 용탕 속도가 단조롭게 증가했습니다.
  • 그러나 코팅 투과성이 약 2를 초과하는 고투과성 영역에서는 투과성이 계속 증가하더라도 용탕 속도의 증가율은 현저히 둔화되었습니다. 예를 들어, K값이 2.0에서 20으로 10배 증가할 때의 용탕 속도 증가는 K값이 0.2에서 2.0으로 10배 증가할 때의 약 절반에 불과했습니다.
  • 실험에 사용된 코팅의 투과성(K)은 최소 0.13(Coat A)에서 최대 45(Coat H)까지 약 350배의 넓은 범위를 가졌으며(Table 1), 이 광범위한 데이터를 통해 고투과성 영역에서의 속도 증가 둔화 현상을 명확히 확인할 수 있었습니다. 이는 고투과성 영역에서는 코팅을 통한 가스 배출 능력보다 EPS 패턴의 열분해 속도 자체가 용탕 충전의 율속 단계(rate-controlling step)가 될 수 있음을 시사합니다.
Fig. 3　Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for measurement of mold lling.
Fig. 3　Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for measurement of mold filling.

Finding 2: 주입 온도, 주물 두께, EPS 발포 배율의 복합적 영향

코팅 투과성 외 다른 공정 변수들도 용탕 속도에 중대한 영향을 미쳤습니다.

  • 주입 온도: Figure 10에서 볼 수 있듯이, 주입 온도를 973K에서 1073K로 높이자 모든 투과성 영역에서 용탕 속도가 크게 증가했습니다. 높은 온도는 용탕에서 EPS 패턴으로의 열전달을 촉진하여 패턴의 분해 속도를 높이기 때문입니다.
  • 주물 두께: Figure 11은 주물 두께의 영향을 보여줍니다. 주물 두께가 10mm일 때보다 5mm로 얇아지자 용탕 속도가 오히려 감소했습니다. 이는 얇은 주물에서 용탕의 온도 강하가 더 커져 점성이 증가하는 효과가 가스층 두께 감소로 인한 속도 증가 효과를 상쇄하고도 남기 때문인 것으로 분석됩니다.
  • EPS 발포 배율: Figure 8과 Figure 9는 EPS 패턴의 발포 배율이 높을수록(즉, 밀도가 낮을수록) 용탕 속도가 빨라짐을 보여줍니다. 밀도가 낮은 패턴은 더 적은 열에너지로 빠르게 분해될 수 있기 때문입니다.

이러한 결과들은 EPC 공정에서 최적의 용탕 속도를 달성하기 위해서는 코팅 투과성뿐만 아니라 다른 핵심 공정 변수들을 복합적으로 고려해야 함을 명확히 보여줍니다.

Practical Implications for R&D and Operations

  • For Process Engineers: 이 연구는 용탕 속도를 제어하기 위해 코팅 투과성을 조절하는 것이 유효한 전략임을 보여줍니다. 미충전 결함 방지를 위해 용탕 속도를 높여야 할 경우, 투과성이 높은 코팅을 사용하는 것이 유리합니다. 그러나 투과성이 특정 수준(K≈2)을 넘어서면 효과가 감소하므로, 이 영역에서는 주입 온도를 높이거나 EPS 패턴의 발포 배율을 높이는 등 다른 변수를 조절하는 것이 더 효율적인 공정 제어 방안이 될 수 있습니다.
  • For Quality Control Teams: 논문의 Figure 9, 10, 11 데이터는 코팅 투과성, 주입 온도, 주물 두께와 같은 공정 변수와 용탕 속도 간의 정량적 관계를 제시합니다. 이를 활용하여 너무 느린 속도로 인한 미충전이나 너무 빠른 속도로 인한 잔류물 혼입 같은 결함을 방지하기 위한 공정 윈도우(process window)를 설정하고, 새로운 품질 검사 기준을 수립하는 데 참고할 수 있습니다.
  • For Design Engineers: Figure 11에서 얇은 주물(5mm)의 용탕 속도가 두꺼운 주물(10mm)보다 느리게 나타난 결과는 특히 박육 부품 설계 시 중요한 시사점을 제공합니다. 얇은 벽을 가진 부품의 경우, 완전한 충전을 보장하기 위해 코팅 투과성과 주입 온도를 더욱 신중하게 선정해야 하며, 이는 초기 설계 단계에서부터 반드시 고려되어야 할 사항입니다.

Paper Details

Effect of Coat Permeability on Melt Velocity of Molten Aluminum Alloy in Expendable Pattern Casting Process

1. Overview:

  • Title: Effect of Coat Permeability on Melt Velocity of Molten Aluminum Alloy in Expendable Pattern Casting Process
  • Author: Sadatoshi Koroyasu
  • Year of publication: 2016
  • Journal/academic society of publication: Materials Transactions, Vol. 57, No. 9 (©2016 Japan Foundry Engineering Society)
  • Keywords: expendable pattern casting, aluminum alloy, mold filling, coat permeability

2. Abstract:

코팅 투과성이 소모성 주형 주조(EPC) 공정에서 용융 알루미늄 합금의 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향을 실험적으로 조사했다. 8종류의 코팅에 대해 코팅층 양단 압력 차와 공기 유량 사이의 선형 관계를 얻었으며, 이 기울기로부터 JIS 규격에 부합하는 코팅 투과성을 결정했다. 이 8종의 코팅을 사용하여, 3종류의 발포폴리스티렌(EPS) 패턴 발포 배율에 대해 하주식 및 감압 없는 조건에서 알루미늄 합금 평판을 주조했다. 용탕의 도달 시간을 측정하여 용탕 속도를 구했다. 높은 발포 배율의 EPS 패턴이나 높은 투과성의 코팅을 사용하면 용탕 속도가 증가했다. 고투과성 코팅 영역에서는 코팅 투과성이 증가해도 용탕 속도는 크게 증가하지 않았다. 주입 온도와 주물 두께가 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향도 조사했다. 높은 주입 온도나 두꺼운 주물을 적용하면 용탕 속도가 증가했다. 실험값을 이전 연구에서 사용된 주형 충전 모델에 기반한 계산값과 비교했다. 코팅 투과성이 높고 주물 두께가 얇은 경우를 제외하고, 실험값은 계산값과 비교적 잘 일치했다.

3. Introduction:

소모성 주형 주조(EPC) 공정은 복잡한 형상의 주물을 분할 및 조립 없이 정밀한 형상(near net shape)으로 얻을 수 있어 매우 매력적이다. 이 공정은 기계 가공 단계뿐만 아니라 탕구 제거 공정도 없앨 수 있다. 또한, 주형에 바인더가 첨가되지 않아 환경 부하를 줄일 수 있다. EPC 공정에서는 발포폴리스티렌(EPS) 패턴의 열분해 및 액화에 의해 생성된 공간으로 용탕이 주입된다. 열분해 가스와 액상 수지는 코팅층을 통해 건조사로 배출된다. 따라서 EPC 공정의 주형 충전 메커니즘은 일반적인 주형(cavity mold)을 사용할 때보다 더 복잡하다. 코팅 투과성이 변하면 용탕 표면과 미분해 EPS 패턴 사이의 열분해 가스층 두께가 변하므로, 코팅 투과성과 용탕 속도는 단순한 관계를 갖지 않는 것으로 보인다. 특히 알루미늄 합금의 EPC 공정에서는 용탕 속도가 매우 낮을 때 용탕 표면의 온도 강하로 인한 미충전이 쉽게 발생할 수 있다. 반면에 용탕 속도가 너무 높으면 미분해된 패턴 일부가 용탕 내에 갇혀 내부 잔류물 결함이 쉽게 발생할 수 있다. 따라서 EPC 공정에서 용탕 속도를 예측하는 것이 중요하다.

4. Summary of the study:

Background of the research topic:

EPC 공정에서 코팅 투과성은 패턴 분해 가스의 배출을 제어하여 주형 충전 속도에 큰 영향을 미치는 핵심 인자이다. 특히 온도 강하에 민감한 알루미늄 합금 주조 시, 용탕 속도 제어는 미충전이나 잔류물 혼입과 같은 결함을 방지하는 데 매우 중요하다.

Status of previous research:

EPC 공정의 주형 충전에 관한 많은 연구가 있었지만, 공정 변수가 용탕 속도에 미치는 정량적 영향, 특히 광범위한 코팅 투과성에 대한 연구는 거의 보고되지 않았다. 이전 연구에서는 제한된 수의 코팅(3종)을 사용하여 투과성의 영향이 비례적이지 않음을 발견했으나, 그 효과를 충분히 이해하기에는 조건이 부족했다.

Purpose of the study:

본 연구는 이전보다 더 넓은 범위의 투과성을 가진 8종의 코팅을 사용하여, 코팅 투과성이 EPC 공정에서 알루미늄 합금의 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향을 명확히 하고자 한다. 또한 주입 온도, EPS 패턴 발포 배율, 주물 두께의 영향도 함께 조사하여 실험값을 이전 연구의 주형 충전 모델 기반 계산값과 비교 분석하는 것을 목적으로 한다.

Core study:

8종류의 코팅(운모 기반 1종, 실리카 기반 7종)에 대한 투과성을 측정하고, 이 코팅들을 적용한 EPS 패턴을 사용하여 알루미늄 합금(AC2A) 평판을 주조했다. 주조 시 코팅 종류, EPS 발포 배율(30, 60, 100배), 주입 온도(973K, 1073K), 주물 두께(5mm, 10mm)를 변화시키며 용탕의 도달 시간을 측정하여 평균 용탕 속도를 계산하고, 각 변수가 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향을 정량적으로 분석했다.

5. Research Methodology

Research Design:

실험적 연구 설계를 채택하여, 통제된 조건 하에서 코팅 투과성, EPS 패턴 발포 배율, 주입 온도, 주물 두께가 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향을 독립적으로 그리고 복합적으로 평가했다.

Data Collection and Analysis Methods:

  • 코팅 투과성: 자체 제작한 장치(Fig. 1)를 사용하여 코팅층 양단의 압력 차이와 공기 유량을 측정하고, 이들의 선형 관계로부터 투과성 계수(K)를 계산했다 (Eq. 1).
  • 용탕 속도: 주물 내 여러 지점에 설치된 접촉 센서(Fig. 4)를 통해 용탕의 도달 시간을 측정했다. 10mm 지점과 190mm 지점 사이의 도달 시간 차이를 이용하여 평균 용탕 속도를 계산했다.

Research Topics and Scope:

  • 8종 코팅의 투과성 측정
  • 코팅 투과성이 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향 분석
  • EPS 패턴 발포 배율(30, 60, 100배)이 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향 분석
  • 주입 온도(973K, 1073K)가 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향 분석
  • 주물 두께(5mm, 10mm)가 용탕 속도에 미치는 영향 분석
  • 실험 결과를 기존의 주형 충전 모델 계산값과 비교

6. Key Results:

Key Results:

  • 8종 코팅의 투과성(K)은 0.13에서 45 (cm²·cmH₂O⁻¹·min⁻¹)까지 약 350배의 차이를 보였다 (Table 1).
  • 코팅 투과성이나 EPS 패턴 발포 배율이 증가하면 용탕 도달 시간이 감소(속도 증가)했다 (Fig. 7, 8).
  • 용탕 속도는 코팅 투과성이 증가함에 따라 증가했지만, 고투과성 영역(K > 약 2)에서는 증가율이 현저히 둔화되었다 (Fig. 9).
  • 주입 온도가 높을수록(1073K > 973K) 용탕 속도는 더 빨랐다 (Fig. 10).
  • 주물 두께가 두꺼울수록(10mm > 5mm) 용탕 속도가 더 빨랐다 (Fig. 11).
  • 코팅 투과성이 높고 주물 두께가 얇은 경우를 제외하고, 실험으로 얻은 용탕 속도는 이전 연구의 모델을 기반으로 한 계산값과 비교적 잘 일치했다.

Figure List:

  • Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus for coat permeability.
  • Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of test piece holder for coat permeability.
  • Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for measurement of mold filling.
  • Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of touch sensor of molten metal. (a) Wiring diagram, (b) Output voltage.
  • Fig. 5 Relationship between differential pressure AP and air flow rate v for coats A,B and C.
  • Fig. 6 Relationship between differential pressure AP and air flow rate v for coats D,E,F,G and H.
  • Fig. 7 Effect of coat permeability K on arrival time ta for pattern expansion ratio of 60 times.
  • Fig. 8 Effect of pattern expansion ratio on arrival ta time for coat permeability K = 1.7.
  • Fig. 9 Effect of coat permeability K on melt velocity u for three kinds of expansion ratios of EPS pattern.
  • Fig. 10 Effect of pouring temperature on melt velocity u for pattern expansion ratio of 60 times.
  • Fig. 11 Effect of casting thickness on melt velocity u for pattern expansion ratio of 60 times.

7. Conclusion:

본 연구는 8종의 다른 투과성을 가진 코팅을 사용하여 EPC 공정에서 용융 알루미늄 합금의 용탕 속도에 대한 코팅 투과성의 영향을 조사했다. 연구 결과, 다음과 같은 결론을 얻었다. 1. 투과성이 높은 코팅이나 발포 배율이 높은 EPS 패턴을 사용하면 용탕 속도가 증가했다. 2. 주입 온도나 주물 두께가 증가하면 용탕 속도가 증가했다. 3. 고투과성 코팅 영역에서는 코팅 투과성이 증가하더라도 용탕 속도는 크게 증가하지 않았다. 4. 코팅 투과성이 높고 주물 두께가 얇은 경우를 제외하고, 용탕 속도에 대한 실험값은 이전 연구의 주형 충전 모델에 기반한 계산값과 비교적 잘 일치했다.

8. References:

  1. F. Sonnenberg: LOST FOAM casting made simple, (American Foundry Society) (2008).
  2. S. Koroyasu: J. JFS 81 (2009) 377-383.
  3. J. Zhu, I. Ohnaka, T. Ohmichi, K. Mineshita and Y. Yoshioka: J. JFS 72 (2000) 715-719.
  4. I Ohnaka, T. Ohmichi, J. Zhu, Y. Hagino, B. Yamamoto and K. Shinano: Report of JFS Meeting 138 (2000) 101.
  5. S. Koroyasu and A. Ikenaga: Mater. Trans. 53 (2012) 224-228.
  6. S. Koroyasu and M. Matsuda: J. JFS 76 (2004) 687-694.
  7. K. Kubo and H. Asao: Report of JFS Meeting 146 (2005) 23.
  8. Y. Hotta, H. Yamagata, M. Nikawa, I. Ohnaka, Y. Tate and Y. Mizutani: Report of JFS Meeting 162 (2013) 82.
  9. F. Kinoshita: J. JFS 86 (2014) 927-930.
  10. T. Maruyama, N. Miyazaki and T. Kobayashi: Report of Kansai Branch JFS Meeting (2011) 4-6.
  11. T. Maruyama, K. Katsuki and T. Kobayashi: J. JFS 78 (2006) 53-58.
  12. M.R. Barone and D.A. Caulk: Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2005) 4132-4149.
  13. S. Koroyasu: J. JFS 86 (2014) 447-453.
  14. EPC Process Technical Meeting: Characteristic and Standardization of Coat for EPC Process (Kansai Branch of JFS) (1996) 18.
  15. S. Koroyasu and M. Matsuda: J. JFS 72 (2000) 85-89.

Expert Q&A: Your Top Questions Answered

Q1: 투과성 측정 시 최대 압력 차를 약 40 cmH₂O로 설정한 이유는 무엇입니까?

A1: 이 압력은 약 170 mmAl의 알루미늄 용탕 헤드에 해당합니다. 이는 실제 주형 충전 중 용탕 표면에서 발생하는 압력 조건과 본질적으로 동일한 조건을 모사하기 위함입니다. 따라서 이 압력 조건에서의 투과성 측정은 실제 주조 공정에서의 가스 배출 현상을 더 정확하게 반영할 수 있습니다.

Q2: 논문에서는 고투과성 코팅(K > 2)의 경우 실험으로 얻은 용탕 속도가 계산값보다 낮았다고 언급합니다. 이 불일치의 원인은 무엇으로 추정됩니까?

A2: 논문은 이 현상의 원인으로 EPS 패턴의 열분해 속도가 율속 단계(rate-controlling step)가 되기 때문이라고 제안합니다. 즉, 코팅의 가스 배출 능력이 충분히 높아지면, 더 이상 가스 배출이 병목 현상이 아니라 패턴 자체가 녹아서 사라지는 속도가 용탕의 전진 속도를 제한하게 된다는 것입니다. 기존의 충전 모델이 이 고투과성 영역에서 이 요인을 완전히 반영하지 못했을 수 있습니다.

Q3: EPS 패턴의 발포 배율은 용탕 속도에 어떤 영향을 미쳤습니까?

A3: Figure 8과 9에서 볼 수 있듯이, EPS 패턴의 발포 배율을 높이면(즉, 패턴의 밀도를 낮추면) 용탕 속도가 증가했습니다. 이는 밀도가 낮은 패턴이 더 적은 열에너지로도 더 쉽게 분해될 수 있어, 용탕으로부터 패턴으로의 열전달이 향상되고 결과적으로 더 빠른 충전이 가능해지기 때문입니다.

Q4: 계산 모델과 달리, 얇은 주물(5mm)이 두꺼운 주물(10mm)에 비해 용탕 속도가 더 느리게 나타난 이유는 무엇입니까?

A4: 논문은 이것이 얇은 단면에서 용융 금속의 온도 강하가 더 크기 때문일 수 있다고 설명합니다. 상당한 온도 강하는 용탕의 점성을 증가시켜 흐름을 방해하며, 이 효과가 가스층 두께 감소로 인한 예상 속도 증가 효과보다 더 크게 작용하여 결과적으로 속도를 늦춘 것으로 보입니다.

Q5: 실험에 사용된 코팅의 투과성 범위는 어느 정도였으며, 이 큰 차이는 어떻게 만들어졌습니까?

A5: 8종의 코팅은 투과성(K) 값이 0.13에서 45 (cm²·cmH₂O⁻¹·min⁻¹)까지 약 350배에 달하는 넓은 범위를 가졌습니다(Table 1). 이러한 큰 편차는 투과성이 매우 낮은 운모 기반 코팅(Coat A) 1종과, 골재의 직경을 달리하여 공기 흐름 저항을 조절한 실리카 기반 코팅(Coat B-H) 7종을 사용하여 구현되었습니다.

Conclusion: Paving the Way for Higher Quality and Productivity

결론적으로, 소모성 주형 주조(EPC) 공정에서 용탕 속도를 제어하는 것은 섬세한 균형 잡기가 필요합니다. 본 연구는 소모성 주형 주조 공정에서의 코팅 투과성이 용탕 속도를 조절하는 강력한 수단이지만, 그 효과는 무한정 증가하지 않고 특정 지점에서 정체된다는 중요한 사실을 정량적으로 입증했습니다.

이 연구 결과는 엔지니어들이 단순히 투과성이 가장 높은 코팅을 선택하는 대신, 주입 온도, 주물 두께, EPS 패턴 발포 배율과 같은 다른 핵심 변수들과의 상호작용을 고려하여 공정을 최적화할 수 있는 귀중한 데이터를 제공합니다. 이러한 종합적인 접근 방식은 미충전이나 잔류물 혼입과 같은 고질적인 주조 결함을 줄이고, 궁극적으로 생산성과 품질을 한 단계 끌어올리는 열쇠가 될 것입니다.

“STI C&D는 최신 산업 연구 결과를 적용하여 고객이 더 높은 생산성과 품질을 달성할 수 있도록 최선을 다하고 있습니다. 이 논문에서 논의된 과제가 귀사의 운영 목표와 일치한다면, 저희 엔지니어링 팀에 연락하여 이러한 원칙을 귀사의 부품에 어떻게 구현할 수 있는지 논의해 보십시오.”

(주)에스티아이씨앤디에서는 고객이 수치해석을 직접 수행하고 싶지만 경험이 없거나, 시간이 없어서 용역을 통해 수치해석 결과를 얻고자 하는 경우 전문 엔지니어를 통해 CFD consulting services를 제공합니다. 귀하께서 당면하고 있는 연구프로젝트를 최소의 비용으로, 최적의 해결방안을 찾을 수 있도록 지원합니다.

  • 연락처 : 02-2026-0450
  • 이메일 : flow3d@stikorea.co.kr

Copyright Information

  • This content is a summary and analysis based on the paper “Effect of Coat Permeability on Melt Velocity of Molten Aluminum Alloy in Expendable Pattern Casting Process” by “Sadatoshi Koroyasu”.
  • Source: https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.F-M2016821

This material is for informational purposes only. Unauthorized commercial use is prohibited. Copyright © 2025 STI C&D. All rights reserved.

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Fig. 6: Calculated degassing efficiency as a function of bubble size [40]

고강도 경량 주조품의 미래: 용탕 성분 및 청정도 제어의 모범 사례

이 기술 요약은 Qigui Wang이 작성하여 2014년 CHINA FOUNDRY에 발표한 학술 논문 “Best practices for making high integrity lightweight metal castings – molten metal composition and cleanliness control”을 기반으로 합니다. 이 자료는 STI C&D에 의해 기술 전문가들을 위해 분석 및 요약되었습니다.

키워드

  • Primary Keyword: 고강도 경량 주조품
  • Secondary Keywords: 용탕 청정도, 합금화, 미량 원소, 주조 결함, 피로 성능, 알루미늄 주조

Executive Summary

  • The Challenge: 경량 금속 주조품의 기계적 특성, 특히 피로 성능은 기공 및 산화막과 같은 내부 결함의 크기와 분포에 의해 크게 좌우되어 제품의 신뢰성을 저하시킵니다.
  • The Method: 본 연구는 고강도 경량 금속 주조품을 생산하기 위해 용탕의 성분 제어, 미량 원소 관리, 용탕 청정도 확보 및 금형 충전 과정에서의 모범 사례를 제시합니다.
  • The Key Breakthrough: 스트론튬(Sr), 인(P), 철(Fe)과 같은 미량 원소의 정밀한 제어와 효율적인 가스 제거(degassing) 및 비난류 충전 기술의 결합이 결함 발생을 최소화하는 핵심임을 규명했습니다.
  • The Bottom Line: 주조품의 피로 수명을 획기적으로 향상시키기 위해서는 초기 합금 설계부터 최종 금형 충전에 이르기까지, 결함의 근원인 이중 산화막(bifilm) 생성을 억제하는 통합적인 공정 관리가 필수적입니다.

The Challenge: Why This Research Matters for CFD Professionals

자동차 산업을 중심으로 연료 효율 개선을 위한 경량화 요구가 증가하면서 엔진 블록, 실린더 헤드, 섀시 부품 등에서 경량 금속 주조품의 사용이 급증하고 있습니다. 이러한 부품들은 구조적 안정성이 매우 중요하며, 특히 피로 성능이 제품의 성공을 좌우합니다. 그러나 알루미늄 및 마그네슘 주조품의 기계적 특성은 미세한 결함에 매우 민감합니다. 특히 기공이나 산화막과 같은 결함은 피로 균열의 시작점이 되어 제품 수명을 현저히 단축시킵니다(그림 1 참조). 결함이 없는 경우, 피로 균열은 공정 입자나 슬립 밴드에서 시작되어 훨씬 높은 피로 수명을 보입니다. 따라서 고강도, 고신뢰성 주조품을 생산하기 위해서는 주조 결함을 최소화하고 미세조직을 균일하게 제어하는 것이 업계의 핵심 과제입니다.

The Approach: Unpacking the Methodology

본 논문은 고강도 경량 금속 주조품 생산을 위한 종합적인 모범 사례를 제시합니다. 연구는 크게 두 가지 핵심 영역에 초점을 맞춥니다.

  1. 합금 및 미량 원소 제어: 주조 공정과 최종 제품의 요구사항(강도, 내압성, 내식성 등)에 맞는 합금 선택의 중요성을 강조합니다. 특히, 알루미늄-실리콘(Al-Si) 합금에서 미세조직 개선을 위한 그레인 미세화(Ti, B 첨가)와 공정 실리콘 개질(Sr 첨가) 기술을 분석합니다. 또한, 피로 성능에 악영향을 미치는 철(Fe), 인(P), 비스무트(Bi)와 같은 미량 불순물 원소의 제어 기준과 상호작용을 정량적으로 제시합니다.
  2. 용탕 품질 보증: 주조 결함의 대부분이 용탕 내 개재물과 용존 가스에서 비롯된다는 점에 주목합니다. 용탕의 산화 및 수소 가스 흡수 메커니즘을 설명하고(방정식 1, 2, 3), 이를 제어하기 위한 회전식 가스 제거(rotary degassing) 시스템의 원리와 최적 운용 조건을 분석합니다. 또한, 용탕 품질을 현장에서 평가하는 RPT(Reduced Pressure Test) 방법의 정확한 절차를 소개하며, 최종적으로 금형 충전 시 이중 산화막(bifilm) 생성을 억제하기 위한 비난류 충전 기술의 중요성을 강조합니다.
Fig. 2: SEM image showing crack initiation from twin bands in NZ30K1-T4 Mg alloy [24]
Fig. 2: SEM image showing crack initiation from twin bands in NZ30K1-T4 Mg alloy [24]

The Breakthrough: Key Findings & Data

본 연구는 고품질 주조품 생산을 위해 반드시 관리해야 할 핵심 요소들을 데이터와 함께 명확히 제시합니다.

Finding 1: 미량 원소의 상호작용과 정밀 제어의 중요성

스트론튬(Sr)에 의한 공정 실리콘 개질은 연성을 향상시키는 데 효과적이지만, 인(P)의 존재는 그 효과를 크게 저해합니다. 그림 3은 Al-7%Si 합금에서 원하는 공정 구조(미세한 섬유상)를 얻기 위해 필요한 Sr 농도가 P 농도에 따라 어떻게 변하는지를 명확히 보여줍니다. 예를 들어, P가 거의 없는 상태에서는 약 20ppm의 Sr만으로도 충분하지만, P 농도가 10ppm으로 증가하면 약 50ppm의 Sr이 필요합니다. 이는 P가 Sr의 효과를 무력화시키기 때문이며, 고품질 주조를 위해서는 P 농도를 엄격히 관리하거나 P 농도에 맞춰 Sr 첨가량을 조절해야 함을 시사합니다. 또한, 철(Fe)은 주조성과 연성을 저해하는 주요 불순물로, 그 임계 함량(Fecrit ≈ 0.075 × [%Si] – 0.05) 이하로 관리해야 하며, 망간(Mn)을 첨가하여 그 효과를 중화시키는 방법도 있지만 항상 효과적인 것은 아니라고 지적합니다.

Finding 2: 용탕 청정도 확보를 위한 과학적 접근

용탕 내 용존 수소는 응고 시 기공 결함의 주원인이 됩니다. 그림 5는 온도가 높을수록 수소의 용해도가 기하급수적으로 증가함을 보여주며, 이는 가스 제거 공정을 가능한 한 낮은 온도에서 수행해야 함을 의미합니다. 그림 7은 A357 합금에서 가스 제거 시간에 따른 수소 함량 변화를 보여주는데, 1450°F(788°C)보다 1350°F(732°C)에서 훨씬 빠르고 효율적으로 가스가 제거됨을 확인할 수 있습니다. 또한, 금형 충전 시 용탕의 낙하 속도가 임계 속도(알루미늄의 경우 약 0.5 m/s)를 초과하면 표면이 접히면서 이중 산화막(bifilm)이 생성됩니다. 이 임계 속도에 도달하는 낙하 거리는 불과 12.7mm에 불과하여, 일반적인 주입 방식은 거의 필연적으로 결함을 유발함을 의미합니다. 이는 비난류 충전 방식(예: 저압 주조, 코스워스 공정)의 도입이 고강도 주조품 생산에 필수적임을 뒷받침합니다.

Practical Implications for R&D and Operations

  • For Process Engineers: 이 연구는 가스 제거 공정 시 용탕 온도를 최대한 낮게 유지하고, 가스 유량과 임펠러 회전 속도를 최적화하여 미세한 기포를 균일하게 분산시키는 것이 중요함을 시사합니다. 또한, 용탕 이송 및 주입 시 낙하 거리를 최소화하고 비난류 충전 시스템을 도입하여 이중 산화막 생성을 원천적으로 차단하는 것이 결함 감소에 기여할 수 있습니다.
  • For Quality Control Teams: 논문에서 제시된 RPT(Reduced Pressure Test)의 표준 절차를 활용하여 용탕의 가스 및 개재물 수준을 정량적으로 관리할 수 있습니다. 그림 3의 데이터는 Sr과 P의 농도 분석 결과를 바탕으로 공정 실리콘 개질 수준을 예측하고, 잠재적인 기계적 물성 저하를 사전에 파악하는 데 유용한 기준을 제공합니다.
  • For Design Engineers: 합금 선택이 주조성 및 결함 형성에 미치는 영향을 초기 설계 단계부터 고려해야 합니다. 예를 들어, 200 시리즈 알루미늄 합금은 강도는 높지만 응고 범위가 넓어 열간 균열 경향이 크다는 점을 인지하고, 이를 보완할 수 있는 주조 방안 설계를 고려해야 합니다.

Paper Details

Best practices for making high integrity lightweight metal castings – molten metal composition and cleanliness control

1. Overview:

  • Title: Best practices for making high integrity lightweight metal castings – molten metal composition and cleanliness control
  • Author: Qigui Wang
  • Year of publication: 2014
  • Journal/academic society of publication: CHINA FOUNDRY, Vol.11 No.4
  • Keywords: best practices; high integrity casting; lightweight; metal casting; molten metal cleanliness; alloying; trace element

2. Abstract:

고강도 경량 금속 주조품을 만들기 위해서는 액체 금속 성분 및 품질 관리, 주조 및 탕구/압상 시스템 설계, 공정 최적화를 포함한 주조 및 열처리 공정의 다양한 단계에서 모범 사례가 요구됩니다. 이 논문은 용해 및 금형 충전 모두에서 액체 금속 처리 및 용탕 품질 보증을 위한 모범 사례를 제시합니다. 경량 금속 주조의 다른 측면에 대한 모범 사례는 별도로 발표될 것입니다.

3. Introduction:

연료 효율 향상을 위한 자동차 무게 감량 요구가 증가함에 따라 엔진 블록, 실린더 헤드, 흡기 매니폴드, 브래킷, 하우징, 섀시, 변속기 부품 및 서스펜션 시스템을 포함한 자동차 부품에서 경량 금속 주조품의 적용이 계속 증가하고 있습니다. 이러한 적용 분야의 대부분은 중요한 구조 부품이므로, 주조품의 기계적 특성, 특히 피로 성능이 성공에 매우 중요합니다. 경량 금속 주조품의 기계적 특성은 결함 및 다중 스케일 미세 구조의 크기, 양 및 분포에 크게 의존합니다. 알루미늄 주조품에서 결함의 부피 분율은 인장 거동을 지배하는 반면, 동적 하중에서는 피로 성능을 제어하는 것은 결함 크기(기공 및 산화막)입니다. 결함 크기를 줄이면 피로 특성이 향상됩니다. 기공과 산화막이 임계 크기보다 작아지면, 균열/분리된 공정 입자와 알루미늄 매트릭스의 지속적인 슬립 밴드가 피로 균열 개시 부위가 되어 피로 수명이 크게 증가합니다.

4. Summary of the study:

Background of the research topic:

자동차 및 기타 산업에서 경량화 요구가 증가함에 따라 고강도 및 고신뢰성을 갖춘 경량 금속 주조품의 필요성이 대두되었습니다.

Status of previous research:

기존 연구들은 주조 결함(기공, 산화막 등)이 주조품의 기계적 특성, 특히 피로 수명을 결정하는 주요 요인임을 밝혀냈습니다. 결함의 크기를 줄이면 피로 성능이 향상된다는 것이 알려져 있습니다.

Purpose of the study:

이 연구의 목적은 용탕의 성분 제어부터 금형 충전에 이르기까지, 고강도 경량 금속 주조품을 생산하기 위한 체계적인 모범 사례를 제시하여 산업 현장에서의 품질 향상에 기여하는 것입니다.

Core study:

연구는 두 가지 핵심 분야에 중점을 둡니다: (1) 합금 성분 및 미량 원소의 정밀 제어를 통한 미세조직 최적화, (2) 용탕 처리(가스 제거, 정련) 및 비난류 금형 충전을 통한 용탕 청정도 확보. 이를 통해 주조 결함의 근본적인 원인을 제거하는 방법을 탐구합니다.

5. Research Methodology

Research Design:

본 연구는 기존의 학술 연구, 기술 보고서 및 현장 경험을 종합하여 고강도 경량 주조품 생산을 위한 모범 사례를 체계적으로 정리하고 제시하는 문헌 연구 및 기술 리뷰 방식으로 수행되었습니다.

Data Collection and Analysis Methods:

다양한 연구에서 발표된 실험 데이터, 그래프, 미세조직 사진 등을 인용하고 분석하여 각 공정 변수가 주조 품질에 미치는 영향을 설명합니다. 예를 들어, 합금 원소의 상호작용(그림 3), 온도에 따른 수소 용해도(그림 5), 가스 제거 효율(그림 7) 등의 데이터를 활용하여 이론적 배경과 실제적 지침을 연결합니다.

Research Topics and Scope:

연구 범위는 경량 금속 주조(주로 알루미늄 및 마그네슘 합금) 공정 중 용탕 준비 및 이송 단계에 초점을 맞춥니다. 주요 주제는 다음과 같습니다. – 합금화 및 미량 원소 제어 (Al-Si 합금 중심) – 용탕 품질 보증 (산화물 및 용존 가스 제어) – 이중 산화막(bifilm) 생성을 피하기 위한 금속 이송 기술

6. Key Results:

Key Results:

  • 주조품의 피로 수명은 기공, 산화물, 슬립 밴드 등 균열 시작점에 따라 크게 달라지며, 결함에서 시작될 경우 현저히 낮아집니다 (그림 1).
  • Al-Si 합금에서 공정 실리콘을 효과적으로 개질하기 위해 필요한 스트론튬(Sr)의 양은 인(P)의 농도에 따라 증가합니다. P는 Sr의 개질 효과를 중화시킵니다 (그림 3).
  • 용탕의 산화 속도는 마그네슘(Mg)과 스트론튬(Sr) 첨가에 의해 크게 증가합니다 (그림 4).
  • 알루미늄 용탕 내 수소의 용해도는 온도가 증가함에 따라 지수적으로 증가하여, 고온에서는 가스 제거가 더 어려워집니다 (그림 5).
  • 가스 제거 효율은 기포의 크기가 작을수록 향상됩니다 (그림 6).
  • 용탕 온도가 낮을수록 가스 제거에 필요한 시간이 단축되어 더 효율적입니다 (그림 7).
  • 용탕이 임계 속도(알루미늄 약 0.5 m/s) 이상으로 낙하하면 표면 난류가 발생하여 이중 산화막(bifilm)을 형성하며, 이는 매우 짧은 낙하 거리(약 12.7 mm)에서도 발생할 수 있습니다.

Figure List:

  • Fig. 1: Two-parameter Weibull plot for fatigue life of a Sr-modified A356 casting alloy sorted by type of crack origin (pore, oxides, or slip bands) observed on fracture
  • Fig. 2: SEM image showing crack initiation from twin bands in NZ30K1-T4 Mg alloy
  • Fig. 3: Sr and P interaction in Al-7%Si alloy when solidification time is 60 s
  • Fig. 4: Thermogravimetric analysis of oxidation rate of aluminum alloy (Al-7%Si) with or without Mg and Sr addition at 730 °C
  • Fig. 5: Hydrogen solubility in pure aluminum
  • Fig. 6: Calculated degassing efficiency as a function of bubble size
  • Fig. 7: Gas removal in A357 alloy at two temperatures
  • Fig. 8: Degassing locations used in both pilot plant and production plant at Nemak
  • Fig. 9: An SEM picture of aluminum oxide film draped over dendrite tips in a 380 alloy
  • Fig. 10: An SEM picture of magnesium oxide film initiated fatigue crack in a NZ30K1 Mg alloy
  • Fig. 11: Cosworth counter-gravity casting process

7. Conclusion:

금속 주조품의 기계적 특성, 특히 피로 성능은 주조 결함에 의해 지배되며, 미세 구조의 영향은 그보다 훨씬 적습니다. 따라서 고강도 금속 주조에서는 주조 결함을 제거해야 합니다(또는 적어도 결함 크기를 기계적 특성에 영향을 미치지 않는 임계 크기보다 작은 수준으로 줄여야 합니다).

(1) 합금 조성, 특히 미량 원소 함량의 적절한 선택 및 제어는 고강도 금속 주조를 위한 첫 번째 단계입니다. 이는 합금 조성이 결함 및 미세 구조 형성을 제어하는 합금의 열물리적 특성 및 응고 특성을 결정하기 때문입니다. 가능하면 기계적 특성 요구사항을 충족시키면서 최상의 주조성(최소 응고 범위, 낮은 수축 경향, 높은 공급 능력 등)을 달성하기 위해 합금 조성을 최적화해야 합니다.

(2) 주조 결함의 형성은 용탕 청정도와 밀접한 관련이 있습니다. 따라서 액체 금속은 가능한 최고 수준으로 정련되어야 합니다. 즉, 산화물 개재물과 용존 가스가 응고 중에 주조 결함을 일으키지 않을 지점까지 최소화되어야 합니다. 개재물과 용존 가스는 부상, 침강, 여과 등 다양한 방법으로 줄일 수 있습니다. 가장 효과적인 접근법은 불활성 가스나 활성 가스 플럭스를 주입하여 개재물과 용존 가스를 동시에 줄일 수 있는 부상법입니다. 최상의 결과를 얻으려면 용탕 온도, 기포 크기, 기포 수 및 분포, 버블링 위치를 최적화해야 합니다.

(3) Campbell의 주장을 인용하자면, 액체 금속의 ‘주입(pouring)’을 중단해야 할 필요성이 점점 더 시급해지고 있습니다. 주입은 다공성, 열간 균열 등 많은 주조 결함의 근본 원인인 혼입된 이중 산화막(bifilm)의 주요 원천입니다. 격자 전위가 소성을 설명하듯이, 이중 산화막은 기공 개시 및 파괴 개시를 설명합니다. 주입이 최소화될 때(즉, 이중 산화막이 감소하거나 제거될 때) 비로소 주조 공정은 고강도 및 신뢰성 있는 주조품을 제공하는 잠재력을 달성하기 시작할 것입니다.

Fig. 6: Calculated degassing efficiency as a function of bubble size [40]
Fig. 6: Calculated degassing efficiency as a function of bubble size [40]

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Expert Q&A: Your Top Questions Answered

Q1: Sr-개질 합금에서 인(P)과 비스무트(Bi) 같은 미량 원소를 제어하는 것이 왜 그렇게 중요한가요?

A1: 논문에 따르면, 인(P)과 비스무트(Bi)는 스트론튬(Sr)의 공정 실리콘 개질 효과를 중화시키는 역할을 합니다. Sr은 뾰족한 침상 형태의 공정 실리콘을 미세한 섬유상으로 바꿔 연성을 향상시키는데, P나 Bi가 존재하면 이 효과가 상쇄되어 다시 조대한 침상 구조로 돌아가게 됩니다. 그림 3에서 볼 수 있듯이, P 농도가 높아질수록 동일한 개질 효과를 얻기 위해 훨씬 더 많은 양의 Sr이 필요합니다. 따라서 일관된 기계적 특성을 가진 고품질 주조품을 생산하기 위해서는 이들 미량 원소를 엄격하게 제어하는 것이 필수적입니다.

Q2: 논문에서 언급된 “임계 철 함량(critical iron content)”은 어떻게 계산되며, 왜 중요한가요?

A2: 임계 철 함량은 Al-Si 합금에서 연성을 심각하게 저하시키지 않는 철(Fe)의 최대 허용 수준을 의미합니다. 논문에서는 이 값을 Fecrit ≈ 0.075 × [%Si] - 0.05 라는 경험식으로 계산할 수 있다고 제시합니다. 철은 응고 시 취성이 큰 침상의 금속간화합물을 형성하여 주조품의 연성과 인성을 저해하고, 수축 기공을 유발하는 원인이 됩니다. 이 임계 함량을 초과하면 이러한 부정적인 영향이 극대화되므로, 고강도 주조품 생산을 위해서는 원자재 선택 단계부터 철 함량을 이 기준 이하로 관리하는 것이 매우 중요합니다.

Q3: 알루미늄 용탕을 효과적으로 가스 제거(degassing)하는 가장 좋은 방법은 무엇이며, 핵심 운영 변수는 무엇인가요?

A3: 논문은 회전식 가스 제거(rotary degassing)가 가장 효율적인 방법 중 하나라고 설명합니다. 이 방법의 핵심은 불활성 가스를 용탕 내에 미세한 기포 형태로 분산시켜 수소 가스가 이 기포로 확산되어 제거되도록 하는 것입니다. 최상의 결과를 얻기 위한 핵심 변수는 (1) 가능한 낮은 용탕 온도, (2) 작은 기포 크기(직경 2-3mm 이하), (3) 용탕 표면의 와류(vortex)를 유발하지 않는 적절한 임펠러 회전 속도 및 가스 유량입니다. 특히 온도가 낮을수록 수소 용해도가 낮아져 제거 효율이 높아지므로(그림 5, 7 참조), 가스 제거는 가능한 한 낮은 온도에서 수행해야 합니다.

Q4: “이중 산화막(bifilm)”이란 무엇이며, 왜 주조품 특성에 그렇게 해로운가요?

A4: 이중 산화막은 용탕이 공기와 접촉하여 표면에 형성된 산화막이 난류로 인해 용탕 내부로 말려 들어가면서 생성되는, 두 겹으로 접힌 산화막 결함입니다. 이 막의 내부는 서로 붙어있지 않고 건조한 상태여서 매우 약한 계면을 형성합니다. 이것이 응고 과정에서 수축 압력에 의해 쉽게 벌어져 기공의 핵이 되거나, 외부 하중을 받을 때 균열의 시작점으로 작용하여 피로 수명을 급격히 감소시킵니다. 논문은 이 이중 산화막이 다공성, 열간 균열 등 대부분의 주조 결함의 근본 원인이라고 강조합니다.

Q5: 용탕 이송 시 “임계 속도(critical velocity)”라는 개념이 언급되었습니다. 알루미늄의 경우 이 값은 얼마이며, 주조 공정에 어떤 의미를 가지나요?

A5: 임계 속도는 용탕의 표면이 접히면서 이중 산화막을 형성하기 시작하는 유속을 의미합니다. 논문에 따르면 알루미늄 및 마그네슘 합금의 경우 이 임계 속도는 약 0.5 m/s입니다. 더 중요한 것은, 용탕이 자유 낙하할 때 이 속도에 도달하는 데 필요한 거리가 불과 12.7mm라는 점입니다. 이는 일반적인 주입(pouring) 공정에서는 거의 피할 수 없이 난류가 발생하고 이중 산화막이 생성됨을 의미합니다. 따라서 고강도 경량 주조품을 생산하기 위해서는 용탕을 붓는 대신, 저압 주조나 코스워스 공정과 같이 용탕을 아래에서부터 조용히 채워 올리는 비난류 충전 방식을 채택하는 것이 필수적입니다.

Conclusion: Paving the Way for Higher Quality and Productivity

본 연구는 결함이 없는 고강도 경량 주조품을 생산하기 위해서는 단편적인 공정 개선을 넘어, 용탕의 성분부터 최종 충전까지 전 과정을 아우르는 체계적인 접근이 필요함을 명확히 보여줍니다. 미량 원소의 정밀한 제어가 미세조직을 최적화하고, 과학적인 용탕 청정도 관리가 결함의 근원을 제거하며, 비난류 충전 기술이 최종적으로 완벽한 주조품을 완성하는 핵심 열쇠입니다. 이러한 모범 사례의 적용은 단순히 불량률을 낮추는 것을 넘어, 제품의 근본적인 신뢰성과 성능을 한 차원 높이는 결과를 가져올 것입니다.

(주)에스티아이씨앤디에서는 고객이 수치해석을 직접 수행하고 싶지만 경험이 없거나, 시간이 없어서 용역을 통해 수치해석 결과를 얻고자 하는 경우 전문 엔지니어를 통해 CFD consulting services를 제공합니다. 귀하께서 당면하고 있는 연구프로젝트를 최소의 비용으로, 최적의 해결방안을 찾을 수 있도록 지원합니다.

  • 연락처 : 02-2026-0450
  • 이메일 : flow3d@stikorea.co.kr

Copyright Information

  • This content is a summary and analysis based on the paper “Best practices for making high integrity lightweight metal castings – molten metal composition and cleanliness control” by “Qigui Wang”.
  • Source: CHINA FOUNDRY, Vol.11 No.4 July 2014, Article ID: 1672-6421(2014)04-365-10

This material is for informational purposes only. Unauthorized commercial use is prohibited. Copyright © 2025 STI C&D. All rights reserved.

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Fig. 5 Sectional views of casting with different density by X-ray CT imaging

소실모형 주조법(EPC)의 혁신: 주조 방안과 감압 조건이 알루미늄 합금의 밀도에 미치는 영향 분석

이 기술 요약은 Sadatoshi KOROYASU가 The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers (2014)에 발표한 논문 “Effects of Casting Design and Reduced Pressure on Density of Aluminum Alloy Casting in Expendable Pattern Casting Process”를 기반으로, STI C&D의 기술 전문가에 의해 분석 및 요약되었습니다.

키워드

  • Primary Keyword: 소실모형 주조법(EPC)
  • Secondary Keywords: 알루미늄 합금, 주물 밀도, 감압 주조, 잔류 수지 결함, 주조 방안

Executive Summary

  • The Challenge: 알루미늄 합금의 소실모형 주조법(EPC)에서 용탕 충전 속도가 빠를 경우, 발포 폴리스티렌(EPS) 모형의 열분해로 생성된 액상 수지가 용탕에 혼입되어 잔류 수지 결함을 유발하고 최종 제품의 밀도를 저하시키는 문제가 발생합니다.
  • The Method: 본 연구에서는 상향 주입(Bottom pouring) 및 하향 주입(Top pouring) 두 가지 주조 방안과 플라스크 내 감압(13.3kPa) 및 무감압 조건을 변수로 설정하여 알루미늄 합금 평판을 주조하고, 주물의 밀도를 정밀하게 측정했습니다.
  • The Key Breakthrough: 상향 주입 방식에서는 플라스크 내부를 감압할 경우, 모형 분해 가스 및 액상 수지의 배출이 촉진되어 무감압 조건보다 주물 밀도가 현저히 향상되었습니다. 또한, 주조 방안 자체로도 하향 주입이 상향 주입보다 더 높은 밀도의 주물을 생산하는 것으로 나타났습니다.
  • The Bottom Line: 소실모형 주조법에서 잔류 수지 결함을 최소화하고 고품질의 알루미늄 주물을 생산하기 위해서는 용탕 충전 속도 제어와 더불어, 감압 조건의 적용 및 최적의 주조 방안(상향/하향 주입) 선택이 핵심적인 요소임을 실험적으로 입증했습니다.

The Challenge: Why This Research Matters for CFD Professionals

소실모형 주조법(EPC)은 복잡한 형상의 주물을 높은 정밀도로 생산할 수 있는 혁신적인 공법이지만, 알루미늄 합금과 같이 용융점이 낮은 재료에 적용할 때 고유한 기술적 과제에 직면합니다. 용탕이 EPS 모형을 열분해하며 금형 내부를 채우는 과정에서, 모형은 가스 및 액상 수지로 변합니다. 특히 알루미늄 합금의 경우, 주철에 비해 열분해 가스층이 얇고 대부분이 액상 수지 형태로 존재하게 됩니다.

이때 용탕의 충전 속도가 과도하게 빠르면, 미처 배출되지 못한 액상 수지가 용탕 내부에 혼입될 가능성이 커집니다. 이렇게 갇힌 액상 수지는 응고 후 ‘잔류 수지 결함’이라는 내부 기공을 형성하여 주물의 기계적 특성을 저하시키고 신뢰성을 떨어뜨리는 주된 원인이 됩니다. 따라서 이 결함을 예측하고 제어하는 것은 고품질 알루미늄 주물 생산의 성패를 좌우하는 중요한 과제이며, CFD 전문가들에게 정확한 유동 및 열분해 모델링의 필요성을 제기합니다.

The Approach: Unpacking the Methodology

본 연구는 주조 방안과 감압 조건이 잔류 수지 결함에 미치는 영향을 밀도 평가를 통해 정량적으로 분석하기 위해 다음과 같은 실험을 설계했습니다.

  • 실험 장치: 내경 200mm, 깊이 300mm의 원통형 철제 주형(플라스크)을 사용했으며, 상부에는 감압을 위한 직경 40mm의 흡입구를 설치했습니다.
  • 주조 모델: 발포 배율 60배(밀도 16.7kg/m³)의 200×70×10mm 크기 EPS 평판 모델을 사용했습니다.
  • 주조 방안:
    1. 상향 주입 (Bottom pouring): 용탕이 주물 하부에서 상부로 채워지는 방식 (그림 1).
    2. 하향 주입 (Top pouring): 용탕이 주물 상부에서 하부로 채워지는 방식 (그림 2).
  • 핵심 변수:
    • 용탕 충전 속도: 투과성이 다른 3종류의 도포제(표 1)와 도포 두께(0.5~2.5mm)를 조절하여 용탕 충전 속도를 제어했습니다.
    • 플라스크 내 압력: 무감압 조건과 13.3kPa의 감압(대기압과의 차압) 조건, 두 가지로 설정했습니다.
  • 재료 및 측정:
    • 주물 재료: 알루미늄 합금 AC2A, 주입 온도 약 973K.
    • 밀도 측정: 아르키메데스 원리를 이용한 천칭법으로 주물의 평균 밀도를 측정했습니다.
    • 내부 결함 관찰: X선 CT 촬영을 통해 주물 내부의 결함 분포와 형태를 관찰했습니다.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for bottom pouring
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for bottom pouring
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for top pouring
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for top pouring

The Breakthrough: Key Findings & Data

Finding 1: 상향 주입 시 감압 조건이 주물 밀도를 획기적으로 개선

그림 3은 상향 주입 방식에서 용탕 충전 속도와 주물 밀도의 관계를 보여줍니다. 모든 조건에서 용탕 속도가 증가할수록 밀도가 감소하는 경향이 나타났는데, 이는 빠른 속도로 인해 액상 수지의 혼입이 증가하기 때문으로 분석됩니다.

주목할 점은 감압 조건(13.3kPa, ○)이 무감압 조건(●)에 비해 모든 속도 구간에서 일관되게 더 높은 주물 밀도를 보였다는 것입니다. 연구진은 감압으로 인해 도포제 내외부의 압력 차가 약 2~3배 커지면서, 모형 분해로 생성된 가스와 액상 수지가 도포제를 통해 더 원활하게 배출되었기 때문으로 해석했습니다. 이는 감압이 잔류 수지 결함을 억제하는 데 매우 효과적인 수단임을 시사합니다.

Finding 2: 하향 주입 방식의 우수성 및 결함의 실체 규명

그림 4는 하향 주입 방식의 결과를 보여줍니다. 상향 주입 방식(그림 3)과 비교했을 때, 전반적으로 주물의 밀도가 더 높게 나타났으며, 감압 조건의 영향은 미미했습니다. 이는 하향 주입 방식 자체가 액상 수지의 용탕 내 혼입을 효과적으로 억제하는 메커니즘을 가지고 있음을 의미합니다.

또한, 그림 5의 X선 CT 단면 이미지는 이러한 밀도 차이가 실제로 내부 결함의 차이에서 비롯됨을 명확히 보여줍니다. 상대적으로 밀도가 높은 주물(a, ρ=2.725×10³kg/m³)에 비해 밀도가 낮은 주물(b, ρ=2.707×10³kg/m³)에서 더 크고 명확한 형태의 잔류 수지 결함(기공)이 관찰되었습니다. 이를 통해, 측정된 밀도 저하의 주된 원인이 잔류 수지 결함에 의한 기공 형성임을 물리적으로 증명했습니다.

Practical Implications for R&D and Operations

  • 공정 엔지니어: 상향 주입 방식의 EPC 공정에서는 플라스크 내 감압(진공 보조)을 적용하는 것이 주물 품질을 향상시키는 효과적인 전략이 될 수 있습니다. 특히 높은 생산성을 위해 용탕 충전 속도를 높여야 할 경우, 감압 공정의 도입은 필수적일 수 있습니다.
  • 품질 관리팀: 본 연구 결과(그림 3)는 용탕 충전 속도가 주물 밀도에 직접적인 영향을 미치는 핵심 공정 변수임을 보여줍니다. 따라서 충전 속도를 정밀하게 제어하고 모니터링하는 것이 중요하며, X선 CT(그림 5)는 밀도 저하의 원인이 잔류 수지 결함인지 판별하는 데 유용한 비파괴 검사 도구로 활용될 수 있습니다.
  • 설계 엔지니어: 주조 방안(상향/하향 주입)의 선택이 결함 형성에 지대한 영향을 미친다는 사실은 주물 설계 초기 단계부터 게이팅 시스템 설계를 신중하게 고려해야 함을 시사합니다. 본 연구의 평판 모델에서는 하향 주입이 더 우수한 결과를 보였으므로, 제품 형상에 따라 최적의 주입 방식을 CFD 시뮬레이션 등을 통해 사전에 검증하는 것이 바람직합니다.

Paper Details

消失模型鋳造法におけるアルミニウム合金鋳物の密度に及ぼす 鋳造方案と減圧の影響 (Effects of Casting Design and Reduced Pressure on Density of Aluminum Alloy Casting in Expendable Pattern Casting Process)

1. 개요:

  • Title: 消失模型鋳造法におけるアルミニウム合金鋳物の密度に及ぼす 鋳造方案と減圧の影響 (Effects of Casting Design and Reduced Pressure on Density of Aluminum Alloy Casting in Expendable Pattern Casting Process)
  • Author: Sadatoshi KOROYASU (Teikyo University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi)
  • Year of publication: 2014
  • Journal/academic society of publication: The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers
  • Keywords: Expendable Pattern Casting Process, Aluminum Alloy, Casting density, Casting design, Reduced pressure

2. Abstract:

소실모형 주조법(EPC) 공정에서 주조 방안과 플라스크 내 감압이 알루미늄 합금 주물의 밀도에 미치는 영향을 실험적으로 조사했다. EPC 공정으로 알루미늄 합금 평판을 주조하고, 주물 결함을 평가하기 위해 주물 밀도를 측정했다. 주물 밀도는 용탕 속도가 높을수록 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 이는 모형의 열분해에 의한 액상 수지가 용탕에 혼입되는 양이 증가하기 때문일 수 있다. 상향 주입(bottom pouring)의 경우, 감압 조건에서의 주물 밀도가 무감압 조건보다 높았다. 하향 주입(top pouring)의 경우, 주물 밀도가 상향 주입보다 높았으며, 감압 조건의 영향은 크지 않았다. X선 컴퓨터 단층 촬영(CT)으로 주물을 관찰한 결과, 주물의 밀도 감소 원인은 잔류 수지 결함에 의한 기공일 수 있다는 결론을 얻었다.

3. Introduction:

소실모형 주조법(EPC)에서는 용탕이 발포 폴리스티렌(EPS) 모형을 열분해하면서 충전되므로, 유동 현상은 일반적인 중공 주형과 비교하여 매우 복잡하다. 특히 알루미늄 합금은 주철에 비해 열분해 가스층이 얇고, 모형 열분해의 대부분이 액상 수지 상태까지 진행되므로 용탕과 액상 수지가 접촉하며 유동한다. 이때 용탕 충전 속도가 빠르면 액상 수지를 용탕 내로 말아 넣을 가능성이 높아져 잔류 수지 결함이 증가할 수 있다. 이 결함은 용탕 속도가 클수록 많아진다고 알려져 있으며, 기계적 성질에도 큰 영향을 미친다. 본 연구에서는 용탕 충전 속도, 주조 방안, 감압 조건이 잔류 수지 결함에 미치는 영향을 주물의 밀도를 통해 평가하는 방법을 검토했다.

4. Summary of the study:

Background of the research topic:

알루미늄 합금의 소실모형 주조법(EPC)에서 용탕 충전 속도가 빠를 경우, EPS 모형의 열분해 산물인 액상 수지가 용탕에 혼입되어 잔류 수지 결함을 유발하고, 이는 주물의 기계적 특성을 저하시키는 주요 원인이 된다.

Status of previous research:

이전 연구들에서 용탕 충전 속도가 빠를수록 잔류 수지 결함이 증가하는 경향이 보고되었으나, 주조 방안(상향/하향 주입)과 감압 조건이 이러한 결함 형성에 미치는 영향을 주물 밀도라는 정량적 지표를 통해 체계적으로 분석한 연구는 부족했다.

Purpose of the study:

본 연구의 목적은 용탕 충전 속도, 주조 방안, 감압 조건이 알루미늄 합금 EPC 주물의 잔류 수지 결함에 미치는 영향을 ‘주물 밀도’라는 지표를 사용하여 정량적으로 평가하고, 그 메커니즘을 규명하는 것이다.

Core study:

상향 주입 및 하향 주입 두 가지 주조 방안과 무감압 및 13.3kPa 감압 조건 하에서 알루미늄 합금(AC2A) 평판을 주조했다. 도포제의 종류와 두께를 조절하여 용탕 충전 속도를 변화시키면서 각 조건에 따른 주물의 밀도를 측정하고, X선 CT를 통해 내부 결함을 관찰하여 밀도 변화의 원인을 분석했다.

5. Research Methodology

Research Design:

본 연구는 2×2 요인 설계(주조 방안: 상향/하향, 압력 조건: 무감압/감압)를 기반으로 한 실험적 연구이다. 용탕 충전 속도를 연속 변수로 두어 주물 밀도에 미치는 영향을 분석했다.

Data Collection and Analysis Methods:

  • 용탕 속도 측정: 주물 내 5개 지점(堰에서 10, 55, 100, 145, 190mm)에 텅스텐 선으로 된 터치 센서를 설치하고, 용탕 도달 시간 차이를 이용해 속도를 계산했다.
  • 밀도 측정: 아르키메데스 원리를 이용한 천칭법으로 주물의 평균 밀도를 측정했다.
  • 내부 결함 분석: X선 CT 장비를 사용하여 주물의 비파괴 단면 이미지를 획득하고 내부 기공의 존재 유무와 크기를 관찰했다.

Research Topics and Scope:

  • 연구 대상: 소실모형 주조법(EPC)으로 제작된 알루미늄 합금(AC2A) 평판 주물
  • 주요 변수: 주조 방안(상향/하향), 플라스크 내 압력(무감압/감압), 용탕 충전 속도
  • 평가 지표: 주물 밀도, 내부 결함(X선 CT 관찰)

6. Key Results:

Key Results:

  • 용탕 충전 속도가 클수록 주물 밀도는 감소하는 경향을 보인다. 이는 모형 분해 액상 수지의 용탕 내 혼입이 증가하기 때문으로 추정된다.
  • 상향 주입 방식에서는 감압 조건(13.3kPa)이 무감압 조건보다 높은 주물 밀도를 나타냈다. 이는 감압에 의해 도포제를 통한 분해 산물 배출이 촉진되기 때문으로 분석된다.
  • 하향 주입 방식은 상향 주입 방식보다 전반적으로 높은 주물 밀도를 보였으며, 감압의 영향은 거의 나타나지 않았다.
  • X선 CT 관찰 결과, 주물의 밀도 저하는 잔류 수지 결함으로 인한 내부 기공(void)에 기인하는 것으로 확인되었다.
Fig. 5 Sectional views of casting with different density by X-ray CT imaging
Fig. 5 Sectional views of casting with different density by X-ray CT imaging

Figure List:

  • Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for bottom pouring
  • Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of casting apparatus for top pouring
  • Fig. 3 Effects of melt velocity and reduced pressure on casting density for bottom pouring
  • Fig. 4 Effects of melt velocity and reduced pressure on casting density for top pouring
  • Fig. 5 Sectional views of casting with different density by X-ray CT imaging
  • Table 1 Test coat used in experiments

7. Conclusion:

소실모형 주조법에서 용탕 충전 속도, 주조 방안, 감압 조건이 알루미늄 합금 주물의 잔류 수지 결함에 미치는 영향을 밀도 평가를 통해 검토한 결과, 다음과 같은 결론을 얻었다.

  1. 용탕 충전 속도가 빠를수록 주물 밀도가 낮아지는 경향이 있으며, 이는 모형 분해 액상 수지의 용탕 내 혼입이 심화되기 때문으로 생각된다.
  2. 상향 주입 방식의 경우, 감압 조건에서 주물 밀도가 더 높게 나타났다. 이는 도포제 표면의 액상 수지가 도포제 막을 통해 원활하게 배출되기 때문으로 생각된다.
  3. 하향 주입 방식은 상향 주입 방식에 비해 주물 밀도가 높았으며, 감압 조건의 영향은 거의 없었다. 이는 모형 분해 액상 수지의 용탕 내 혼입이 억제되었기 때문으로 보이나, 명확한 원인은 불분명하다.
  4. X선 CT 관찰 결과, 밀도 저하의 주된 요인은 잔류 수지 결함에 의한 기공 형성인 것으로 생각된다.

8. References:

  • (1) F. Sonnenberg: “LOST FOAM casting made simple”, (American Foundry Society) (2008).
  • (2) 丸山徹, 甲木晃晴, 小林武: 鋳造工学 78 (2006) 53.

Expert Q&A: Your Top Questions Answered

Q1: 연구에서 투과성이 다른 3가지 종류의 도포제를 사용한 이유는 무엇입니까?

A1: 도포제의 투과성은 모형이 열분해될 때 발생하는 가스와 액상 수지의 배출 속도에 직접적인 영향을 미칩니다. 본 연구에서는 투과성이 다른 3종류의 도포제(표 1)와 그 도포 두께를 조절함으로써 용탕 충전 속도를 의도적으로 변화시키기 위해 사용했습니다. 이를 통해 용탕 속도라는 핵심 변수가 주물 밀도에 미치는 영향을 체계적으로 분석할 수 있었습니다.

Q2: 그림 3에서 약 10mm/s의 낮은 용탕 속도 구간에서 밀도가 오히려 감소하는 경향이 보이는데, 그 이유는 무엇입니까?

A2: 논문에서는 이 현상을 용탕 선단의 온도 저하 때문으로 설명합니다. 용탕 속도가 매우 느리면 용탕 선단의 온도가 낮아져 유동이 정지될 수 있습니다. 이 상태에서 측정된 결과로, 용탕 내에 혼입된 가스가 부력에 의해 상승하여 빠져나가지 못하고 그대로 응고되면서 기공으로 남아 밀도를 저하시킨 것으로 추정됩니다.

Q3: 하향 주입 방식(그림 4)이 상향 주입 방식(그림 3)에 비해 감압의 효과가 미미한 이유는 무엇입니까?

A3: 논문에서는 하향 주입 방식 자체가 상향 주입 방식에 비해 액상 수지의 용탕 내 혼입을 더 효과적으로 억제하기 때문일 것으로 추정합니다. 즉, 하향 주입의 구조적 이점으로 인해 이미 결함 발생이 상당 부분 억제된 상태이므로, 감압을 통해 추가적으로 얻을 수 있는 개선 효과가 상대적으로 작게 나타난 것으로 해석할 수 있습니다. 다만, 그 명확한 메커니즘은 불분명하다고 언급하고 있습니다.

Q4: 밀도 감소를 유발하는 결함의 물리적 형태는 구체적으로 무엇입니까?

A4: 그림 5의 X선 CT 이미지 분석을 통해 확인할 수 있습니다. 밀도가 낮은 주물(b)의 단면에서는 수 mm 크기의 명확한 기공(void)들이 관찰됩니다. 이는 모형의 열분해 과정에서 발생한 액상 수지나 가스가 용탕 내에 갇혔다가 응고 후 빈 공간으로 남은 ‘잔류 수지 결함’으로, 이것이 밀도 저하의 직접적인 원인임을 보여줍니다.

Q5: 실험에서 용탕의 충전 속도는 어떻게 측정되었습니까?

A5: 주물 내 5개의 특정 위치(게이트로부터 10, 55, 100, 145, 190mm)에 0.5mm 직경의 텅스텐 가는 선으로 만든 터치 센서를 설치했습니다. 용탕이 각 센서에 닿는 순간을 전기적으로 감지하고, 센서 간의 용탕 도달 시간 차이를 계산하여 평균 충전 속도를 산출했습니다.

Conclusion: Paving the Way for Higher Quality and Productivity

본 연구는 알루미늄 합금의 소실모형 주조법(EPC)에서 고품질 주물을 생산하기 위한 핵심적인 공정 변수들을 명확히 제시했습니다. 용탕 충전 속도, 주조 방안, 그리고 감압 조건의 상호작용이 최종 제품의 밀도, 즉 내부 결함에 지대한 영향을 미친다는 사실을 실험적으로 증명한 것입니다. 특히 상향 주입 시 감압 적용의 효과와 하향 주입 방식의 구조적 우수성을 규명한 것은 공정 최적화를 위한 중요한 단서를 제공합니다.

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Melt pool EBSD and X-ray computed tomography analysis results.

High-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging of melt pool dynamics during ultrasonic melt processing of Al6061

알루미늄 6061의 초음파 용융 처리 중 용융 풀 역학에 대한 고속 동기화된 X선 영상 촬영

Lovejoy Mutswatiwa, Lauren Katch, Nathan J Kizer, Judith A Todd, Tao Sun, Samuel J Clark, Kamel Fezzaa, Jordan S Lum, David M Stobbe, Griffin Jones, Kenneth C Meinert Jr., Andrea P Argüelles, Christopher M Kube

Abstract

Ultrasonic processing of solidifying metals in additive manufacturing can provide grain refinement and advantageous mechanical properties. However, the specific physical mechanisms of microstructural refinement relevant to laser-based additive manufacturing have not been directly observed because of sub-millimeter length scales and rapid solidification rates associated with melt pools. Here, high-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging is used to observe the effect of ultrasonic vibration directly on melt pool dynamics and solidification of Al6061 alloy. The high temporal and spatial resolution enabled direct observation of cavitation effects driven by a 20.2 kHz ultrasonic source. We utilized multiphysics simulations to validate the postulated connection between ultrasonic treatment and solidification. The X-ray results show a decrease in melt pool and keyhole depth fluctuations during melting and promotion of pore migration toward the melt pool surface with applied sonication. Additionally, the simulation results reveal increased localized melt pool flow velocity, cooling rates, and thermal gradients with applied sonication. This work shows how ultrasonic treatment can impact melt pools and its potential for improving part quality.

Introduction

Laser-based metal additive manufacturing (AM), a three-dimensional printing technique, can manufacture single components and structures with highly complex geometries, functionally graded alloys1, tailored microstructures2, and enhanced mechanical properties3. However, for most alloys, thermal cracking, porosity, and columnar grains4 reduce mechanical properties and prevent the widespread adoption of AM parts5. Establishing techniques for influencing solidification toward grain refinement could lead to parts with better mechanical properties and, ultimately, improve the reliability and quality of AM components6. The variation of AM process parameters, such as laser power, scan speed, and energy density7 allows control of thermal gradients and cooling rates, resulting in location-specific microstructural refinement2. However, process parameter optimization can be challenging, especially for alloys that are difficult to print. In addition to process parameter adjustment, inoculants can be added to the AM process to promote heterogeneous nucleation in the melt pool, resulting in grain refinement8. However, inoculants unavoidably change the chemical composition of the material, which can impact the mechanical strength of AM components9. In addition, inoculants can cause inclusions due to settlement and agglomeration10.

Other techniques for solidification control can be achieved by applying external fields such as electromagnetic11, mechanical12, or acoustic13 fields. In casting, electromagnetic fields were reported to increase cooling rates14, which resulted in reduced alloying element segregation and a more homogeneous macrostructure. Low-frequency mold vibration also succeeded in solidification manipulation during casting, resulting in a refined as-cast grain structure15. The application of high-intensity ultrasound on solidifying metals for molten metal processing during welding resulted in grain refinement and improved weld joint strength16. Nonetheless, using these techniques in laser-based metal AM is challenging because of the short length and time scales involved in melt pool dynamics and solidification17.

Following the work of Eskin18 and Abramov19, and applying successful grain refinement techniques in welding20, Todaro et al.21 recently demonstrated that high-intensity ultrasound can promote columnar to equiaxed grain transitions (CET) in laser AM fabricated Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 625. As a result, components built with a fine, equiaxed grain structure exhibited increased yield and tensile strengths. One form of ultrasonic melt processing in AM involves laser metal powder consolidation on a substrate vibrating at ultrasonic frequencies (i.e., sonicated substrates). An applied ultrasonic frequency of 20 kHz on an AM-fabricated 316L stainless steel plate resulted in a noticeable decrease in grain sizes and an increase in random grain orientations22. Similarly, a reduction in mechanical property anisotropy and grain refinement along the build direction in wire arc AM was recently observed after ultrasonic treatment23. Ivanov et al.24 and Yoon et al.25 leveraged high-frequency pulsed laser irradiation to introduce high-intensity ultrasonic waves in the melt pool, resulting in microstructural refinement. Wang et al.26 used ultrasonic vibration-assisted AM to fabricate Inconel 718 parts and investigated the influence of four ultrasonic frequencies (i.e., 0, 25, 33, and 41 kHz) on microstructural refinement and mechanical properties. While ultrasonic melt processing at 25 kHz increased mechanical strength, the use of higher ultrasonic frequencies was observed to increase porosity and hardness. Wang et al.26 elucidated the effects of frequency, yet the effect of other ultrasonic wave parameters, such as vibration amplitude and acoustic intensity, on grain refinement, remained unclear.

The observed microstructural refinement in AM ultrasonic melt processing reported in the literature is hypothesized to result from increased nucleation rates and sites caused by acoustic cavitation and streaming induced in the melt pool. Acoustic cavitation and streaming have been suggested to compete with Marangoni convection, recoil pressure, and surface tension forces in the melt pool27, influencing solidification rates and thermal gradients and promoting columnar to fine equiaxed grain transitions28. Cavitation was observed in high-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging experiments within a controlled casting with ultrasonic treatment by Wang et al.29. They observed acoustic cavitation bubbles imploding in a Bi-8%Zn alloy on the solid-liquid interface, causing fragmentation of the solid phase in the mushy zone. Moreover, acoustic streaming was observed to disperse solid particles in the liquid, which have been reported to later act as solidification nuclei30. In AM, however, the melting and solidification processes occur rapidly, presenting spatial and temporal resolution challenges in direct cavitation observation. In their study focused on observing grain refinement mechanisms in ultrasound-assisted AM, Ji et al.31 stated that because of extremely high temperature, opacity, and short survival time, it is hardly possible to directly observe the process of ultrasound effect on the molten metal pool in AM through experiments. While direct observation of dendrite fracture would be challenging, recent high-speed X-ray imaging of keyhole dynamics in AM32 allows observation of cavitation bubbles directly during ultrasound-assisted AM.

In this work, high-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging at the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory was used to capture acoustic cavitation in high-temperature, viscous, and opaque sub-millimeter scale melt pools within an Al6061 sample. Ultrasonic treatment was observed to alter keyhole morphology, which could potentially reduce or eliminate porosity generated from keyhole tip collapse, in addition to reducing dynamic keyhole instabilities. Ultrasonic treatment influenced bubble dynamics, causing pore migration toward the melt pool surface. The reported results demonstrated the existence and influence of cavitation on laser-generated melt pool dynamics during ultrasonic melt processing, which was previously hypothesized by Todaro et al.21,22, Feilong et al.23, and Wang et al.26. The multiphysics Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations using the Flow-3DⓇ platform showed an increase in melt pool flow velocity, thermal gradients, and cooling rates with applied ultrasonic treatment. This study provides direct evidence that acoustic cavitation effects are present in laser-generated melt pools and can be studied using high-speed X-ray imaging and CFD simulations. Thus, controlling acoustic cavitation, microstructure, and, henceforth, mechanical properties and part quality is now a closer reality33.

Results

In-situ synchrotron X-ray imaging of acoustic cavitation in melt pools

Figure 1 shows the primary features of the experimental setup. The experiment consisted of a continuous-wave ytterbium fiber laser with user set powers ranging from 100 to 560 W, the high-speed X-ray imaging system (see details in29), and an Al6061 sample mounted vertically on top of a Langevin transducer driven at its lowest order extensional resonance frequency of 20.2 kHz. Single-pulse X-ray images were collected at a rate of 50 kHz to observe melt pool dynamics, cavitation bubble dynamics, and solidification. X-ray computed tomography (CT) and electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) were used to further characterize the pore structure ex-situ.

Fig. 1: Experimental setup.
Schematic diagram illustrating the experimental setup for high-speed X-ray imaging of melt pools on a vibrating substrate.

A representative X-ray image showing annotated melt pool features and vibration direction is shown in Fig. 2. X-ray absorption and phase contrast allowed easy identification of the solid/liquid transition region, vapor depression area, and microscale bubbles from cavitation. Supplementary Movie 1 shows the entire single-point melt pool and solidification process when the 350 W laser is applied for 3.34 ms without sonication. In addition, the video shows highly dynamic features such as bubble motion, melt pool size fluctuation, and keyhole initiation, growth, and fluctuation. The high spatial (i.e., 2 μm/pixel) and temporal (i.e., 50,000 frames per second) resolutions afforded by the high-energy synchrotron facility enabled direct quantifiable observation of the microscale bubble dynamics within the melt pool. The effect of the vibration could then be easily observed by conducting measurements with and without the active ultrasonic transducer. While the vibration was active, the X-ray imaging allowed direct measurement of the vibration amplitude of approximately 8 μm (more details on image processing and measurements are provided in the “Methods” section).

Fig. 2: Melt pool X-ray frame.
An X-ray frame showing the melt pool boundary at the solid/liquid interface, the keyhole or vapor depression morphology, the keyhole rim, hot spatter, a microbubble, and vibration direction. The video from which this frame was extracted is found in Supplementary Movie 1.

Figure 3a, b depict real-time X-ray image sequences of stationary laser-generated molten Al6061 pool dynamics without and with sonication, respectively. Supplementary Movie 2 is the associated high-speed videos containing the frames seen in Fig. 3a, b. In Fig. 3a, a narrow and deep vapor depression or keyhole can be observed in melt pools without sonication. Keyhole melt pools with these characteristics are known to be susceptible to keyhole porosity in AM when the tip of the vapor depression pinches off and forms a bubble32,34. Without sonication, bubbles were observed to settle at the bottom of the melt pool, where the solidification front could quickly freeze them, resulting in porosity. Figure 3a also shows strong fluctuations in keyhole depth, which is a characteristic of keyhole instability35.

Fig. 3: X-ray image sequences showing laser-generated molten Al6061 pools.
Melt pools (a) without and (b) with sonication. The six X-ray frames were taken at 0.02 ms intervals, beginning at 2.96 ms after the laser was turned on. The video from which these frames were extracted is found in Supplementary Movie 2.

The bubble density is shown to increase due to sonication as depicted in Fig. 3b and Supplementary Movie 2, proving the sonication leads to bubble nucleation in the liquid phase separate from the keyhole region. The bubbles in the melt pool with sonication rapidly nucleate, grow, oscillate, and sometimes implode, demonstrating cavitation bubble behavior. In addition, acoustic streaming effects were observed, where the molten metal flows in the vibration direction36,37. Sonication increased the average bubble diameter and promoted bubble migration towards the melt pool surface (Supplementary Movie 2). Bubbles with larger diameters were observed to implode at the melt pool surface, demonstrating degassing characteristics. In conventional AM, the melt flow-induced drag force dominates bubble dynamics38. Based on the observed bubble dynamics in melt pools with sonication, it can be pointed out that bubble growth due to cavitation increases the buoyancy force, overcoming the drag force that usually traps pores38, steering the bubbles toward the melt pool surface, and promoting degassing39. In addition, we speculate that primary and secondary Bjerknes acoustic radiation forces may exist in the melt pool, facilitating bubble translation toward the melt pool surface and causing degassing40. The concentration of porosity toward the melt pool surface induced by sonication might be convenient in metal AM because the remelting between successive layers could eliminate the residual porosity from previous layers.

Figure 3b also shows a reduction in the keyhole depth fluctuations and an increase in the keyhole tip radius with sonication. These phenomena resulted in the elimination of the keyhole tip pinch-off porosity32. However, sonication was observed to eject molten metal from the melt pool, as shown in the X-ray frame at 2.96 ms with sonication in Fig. 3b. Further investigation on the influence of substrate vibration directions (i.e., in-plane or out-of-plane vibration) and vibration amplitudes and frequencies could help minimize potential spatter in laser-based AM with ultrasonic melt processing and will be explored in our future research.

Influence of ultrasonic treatment on melt pool geometry and dynamics

The variations in the keyhole and melt pool depths, with and without sonication, are illustrated in Fig. 4. The melt pool depths, keyhole depths, and melt pool widths were measured from the point where sizable contrast difference between the liquid/solid and gas/liquid phases could be observed in the X-ray images. From Fig. 4a, it can be observed that the keyhole depth without sonication was larger than the sonicated keyhole. Melt pool and keyhole depths were shown to fluctuate at constant laser power41, indicative of instabilities34. The depth fluctuations were quantified as one standard deviation about the mean of the measured depths. With sonication, the melt pool depth standard deviation was 66.3 μm, whereas it was 111.6 μm without. Similarly, the keyhole depth standard deviation was 31.6 μm compared to 57.6 μm with and without sonication, respectively. This indicates ultrasonic treatment reduces fluctuations, leading to more stable dynamics. Without sonication, the melt pool began in conduction mode as shown in Fig. 4c from 2.8 to 4.25 ms, after which the melt pool transitioned into the keyhole mode. Conversely, with sonication, the melt pool started directly in keyhole mode. In both cases, the transition from conduction to keyhole mode occurred rapidly until stabilizing after about 5.5 ms.

Fig. 4: Influence of ultrasonic treatment on melt pool and keyhole geometry.
a Keyhole depth, b Keyhole aspect ratios (keyhole depth divided by fixed laser beam diameter of 80 μm), c Melt pool depths, and d Melt pool aspect ratios (melt pool width divided by depth based on measurements from X-ray images) with and without sonication. Red plain line shows measurements without sonication while black line with circular markers shows measurements with sonication.

Keyhole morphology also plays a role in melt pool dynamics and defect formation during laser-based metal AM processes. Fig. 4b shows the Keyhole aspect ratios calculated from measured depths divided by the 80 μm laser diameter35. These results show lower keyhole aspect ratios in sonicated melt pools. A high aspect ratio represents a deep and narrow keyhole with a needle-like tip, while a low keyhole aspect ratio represents a wide keyhole with an observable tip radius. A deep and narrow keyhole traps laser beam reflections at the bottom, leading to a J-shaped keyhole in moving laser scenarios32, which are susceptible to keyhole tip pinch-off porosity38,42. Therefore, ultrasonic treatment in metal AM can potentially eliminate one of the major keyhole porosity driving mechanisms by decreasing the keyhole aspect ratio and increasing keyhole-tip radius. Figure 4 d depicts the melt pool aspect ratio with and without sonication. In the absence of sonication, a high melt pool aspect ratio was observed when the melt pool was in conduction mode (i.e., from 2.7 to 4.4 ms) compared to the keyhole mode. There was not a significant difference in the melt pool aspect ratio due to sonication.

Laser energy absorptivity is known to be influenced by melt pool and keyhole depths43. Thus, the difference in melt pool geometries in ultrasonically treated melt pools relative to non-ultrasonically treated melt pools could result from the variation in the position of the laser focal point relative to the melt surface caused by the back-and-forth motion of the vibrating sample, promoting multiple laser beam reflections, resulting in improved laser energy absorptivity. This is possible at high vibration amplitudes to laser spot size ratios. However, in our case, a 16 μm peak-to-peak vibration amplitude and a laser spot size of 80 μm will not significantly influence laser energy absorptivity. Therefore, we speculate that the increased absorptivity could be due to the raised melt pool surface above the sample due to ultrasonic vibration causing the keyhole rim to rise while the recoil pressure keeps the bottom of the keyhole stationary. Hence, it results in deeper keyholes that promote multiple laser beam reflections on the vapor/liquid interface and increased absorptivity. In addition, the melt pool temperature could have increased because of bubble implosions, resulting in a larger melt region with applied ultrasound. Improved laser energy absorptivity and large melt pools are advantageous in metal AM to potentially reduce component build time. To investigate these claims further, CFD simulations were conducted to explain the impact of sonication on thermal gradients and cooling rates.

Multiphysics modeling of melt pool dynamics and solidification in ultrasound-assisted AM

High-speed X-ray imaging was able to provide real-time evidence of acoustic cavitation and melt pool dynamics in laser-generated melt pools driven by an external ultrasonic field. Additional insight into pressure distributions, thermal gradients, and cooling rate information is available through bridging the experiments with CFD simulations. In particular, CFD offers the ability to connect thermal properties to microstructural development. To further investigate the influence of ultrasonic treatment on solidification, we conducted multiphysics simulations of single-spot laser-generated melt pools with and without ultrasonic vibration using Flow-3DⓇ. Identical laser and ultrasonic parameters and substrate material used in the X-ray imaging experiments were adopted in the simulations. To reduce the simulation time, the laser duration was set to 0.8 ms compared to 3.4 ms in the experiments. The X-ray images were used to validate the simulations by directly observing melt pool and keyhole morphologies, cavitation bubbles, and solidification structures. Fig. 5a, b compare CFD simulated melt pools to melt pool geometries directly captured in X-ray imaging for the cases of without and with sonication. Deep and narrow keyholes observed with high-speed X-ray imaging in melt pools without sonication were replicated in the simulations. Similarly, an increased keyhole tip radius observed with X-ray imaging in melt pools with sonication was captured in the Flow-3DⓇ simulation. Supplementary Movies 3 and 4 show simulated keyhole dynamics for the two cases. Furthermore, Supplementary Movies 5 and 6 show the results of simulated melt pool dynamics. Similar to the melt pool dynamics undergoing sonication captured by X-ray imaging (i.e., Supplementary Movie 2), the simulated melt pools (i.e., Supplementary Movie 5) showed acoustic cavitation-driven bubble nucleation and implosion caused by pressure variation in the melt pool. Furthermore, the simulated solidification structure with ultrasonic treatment shows frozen cavitation-induced pores like those observed in X-ray imaging and X-ray CT. To further validate the simulations, the measured melt pool aspect ratios (width/depth) from X-ray images were compared with the simulated melt pool aspect ratios. Figs. 5c, d show melt pool aspect ratios, which were found to be closely consistent between simulations and experiments. The close agreement in aspect ratios speaks to the simulations accurately representing the laser energy transfer into the pool

Fig. 5: CFD melt pool simulation comparison with X-ray results.
a Melt pool simulation without and with sonication, b comparable experimental results without and with sonication, c Aspect ratios (depth/width) observed in the simulations, and d corresponding experimental aspect ratios.

Melt pool flow dynamics are primarily driven by surface tension, Marangoni convection, and recoil pressure. The application of ultrasound introduces acoustic streaming as an additional driving force. Simulations allowed us to quantify acoustic streaming by comparing velocity vectors at points in the fluid with and without applied ultrasonic treatment. Fig. 6a shows melt pool speed contours and velocity vectors with and without sonication. Supplementary Movies 7 and 8 show additional melt pool dynamics. The higher melt pool velocities in melt pools with sonication confirm that acoustic streaming is a major factor in fluid flow. Figure 6b shows the pressure distribution. Large pressure fluctuations are observed in the presence of sonication. The frames shown in Fig. 6b were taken from the simulation results during solidification and when the laser was switched off. This was done to decouple the sonication from thermal energy input. Supplementary Movies 9 and 10 show animations of pressure distribution in solidifying melt pools with and without sonication, respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 6b that the pressure variation in the melt pool with sonication promoted bubble nucleation. In addition, the influence of ultrasonic vibration can be observed in Fig. 6b with sonication, as ripples of high and low-pressure regions captured by the solidification. Without sonication, no significant pressure variation was observed during solidification. Acoustic cavitation bubble nucleation occurs when the localized pressure within a liquid drops below the vapor pressure of that liquid. Therefore, in Al6061 laser-generated melt pools, it can be seen that if the localized pressure within the melt pool drops below the vapor pressure of molten Al6061, nucleation of bubbles will occur. To investigate the influence of pressure variation on bubble nucleation during melting, the image sequence in Fig. 6c shows the pressure contours at a bubble nucleation site within the melt pool. A decrease in melt pool pressure was observed to result in bubble nucleation, while an increase in pressure promoted bubble implosion.

Fig. 6: CFD melt pool simulation results with and without sonication.
a Simulation frames showing velocity vectors of points in the liquid, b pressure distributions, c pressure field at the nucleation of a cavitation bubble and after the collapse.

Microstructure development is directly linked to solidification rates and thermal gradients. To investigate the influence of ultrasonic treatment on solidification conditions, we collected time history temperature gradients and cooling rates at a point within the melt pools with and without sonication. Figure 7a shows the point data probing location at which the time history of parameters that can be related to microstructural development was collected. Figure 7b shows the time history of pressure, cooling rate, thermal gradient, and velocity at the data probing point, with and without sonication. It can be observed that high pressure was observed in melt pools without compared to those with sonication. Conversely, higher cooling rates were observed in melt pools with sonication. Similarly, higher thermal gradients and fluid velocities were observed in melt pools with compared to those without sonication. Figure 7c shows the overall cooling rates and thermal gradients at each simulation time frame over the entire simulation. It can be observed that the overall thermal gradient did not respond to ultrasonic treatment. However, the overall melt pool cooling rate increased with the applied ultrasonic treatment.

Fig. 7: Melt pool thermal history from CFD simulation.
a Point data probing location. b The time history of fluid pressure, cooling rates, thermal gradients, and fluid velocities at the data probing point with and without sonication. c Melt pool thermal gradients and cooling rates at each time frame during the entire simulation with (red line plain line) and without sonication (black line with circular markers).

Acoustic cavitation characterization and influence on microstructural development

The primary aim of this article is to unveil the physics associated with ultrasonically driving the melt pool. A secondary aim and a topic of future work is to unveil conditions that lead to refined or tailored microstructures toward improved quality and performance of AM parts. Nevertheless, the solidification microstructures formed in melt pools with and without sonication were characterized using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Fig. 8 a, b show the microstructures and crystallographic orientations of the grains in melt pools without and with sonication, respectively. Since EBSD is destructive, it is noted that the non-sonicated case is a different sample having a single point melt with the same laser power and duration as the sonicated melt pool case. For both samples, the melt pool boundary was traced using standard optical images, in which the melt region was clear (see Supplementary Figs. 6 and 7) and then superimposed on the EBSD grain map. Epitaxial grain growth and cracking along grain boundaries were evident in both cases. A qualitative reduction in grain size is observed in the sonication case but is difficult to ascertain because of the large pore structure as seen by the dark features in Fig. 8b.

Fig. 8: Melt pool EBSD and X-ray computed tomography analysis results.
EBSD grain map showing the solidification microstructure (a) without and (b) with sonication. c High-speed X-ray frame showing the final solidification structure and corresponding X-ray computed tomography visualization showing the porosity features and indications of the sonication-driven vibrations (seen by the red arrows).

Moreover, X-ray computed tomography analysis was performed on the final solidification structure (prior to EBSD) to characterize the influence of cavitation and acoustic streaming in sonicated laser-generated melt pools. An X-ray frame from the high-speed imaging showing the final solidification structure and a 3D isosurface of cavitation-induced porosity in the melt pool is shown in Fig. 8c. The X-ray computed tomography reveals evidence of frozen cavitation bubbles and ultrasonic vibration-induced-ripples in the melt pool (i.e., labeled by arrows in the X-ray computed tomography scan image). The ultrasonic wavelength in Al6061 at a frequency of 20.2 kHz was calculated to be 0.32 m, which is orders of magnitude higher than the melt pool depth and width. Thus, the micron scale ripples observed resulted from the sinusoidal variation in pressure from the ultrasonic vibration, which we have also observed in CFD simulations. This discovery calls attention to the influence of vibration amplitudes on cavitation in laser-based AM with ultrasonic treatment, which has not been previously explored. Figure 8c also shows a higher concentration of pores near the sample surface relative to the bottom of the melt pool. Thus, it is further corroborated that ultrasonic treatment causes bubble migration toward the melt pool surface.

Cavitation in ultrasonic molten metal processing has been explored by several researchers28,39,44,45, who conducted casting experiments on light metallic alloys. High-temperature cavitometry46,47 and high-speed imaging48 were used to establish a cavitation threshold in terms of acoustic intensity49. The first-order linear approximation of ultrasonic intensity, I, in an acoustic field is44

where ρ is the fluid density, c is the speed of sound in the fluid, A is the wave amplitude and f is the ultrasonic frequency. An acoustic intensity cavitation threshold of 100 W/cm2 was established for light metal alloys through casting experiments with ultrasonic melt processing44. In the experiments described in the literature29,45, an ultrasonic transducer horn was immersed in molten metal to introduce a propagating wave directly into the solidifying metal. Hence, the cavitation threshold could be established for sizable molten metal pools, and solidification rates would be significantly lower than those in AM processes. Nevertheless, the 100 W/cm2 cavitation threshold has been proposed for laser-based AM printing of light metallic alloys on sonicated substrates21,22,23,31,37,50,51,52,53,54,55,56. However, laser AM fundamentally differs from casting because of the submillimeter-size melt pools that exist for milliseconds owing to the associated rapid solidification rates. In casting, metal melting and solidification are separate processes, whereas melting, molten metal agitation, and solidification occur simultaneously in laser AM with sonication to generate acoustic cavitation. In addition, ultrasonic melt processing in casting involves wave propagation in a solidifying molten metal, while in AM, it involves local vibration of the molten metal. Such factors indicate different physical environments for cavitation in casting and AM. Therefore, validation of acoustic cavitation thresholds in laser-generated melt pools is needed, underpinning the importance of our technique.

Using a wave speed of 4718 m/s, density of 2586 kg/m3, wave amplitude of 8 μm, and frequency of 20.2 kHz in Equation (1) resulted in an acoustic intensity of 628.9 W/cm2. Our calculated acoustic intensity is above the established 100 W/cm2 cavitation threshold. However, cavitation was observed in the CFD simulations at an average acoustic intensity of 10 W/cm2, which is much lower than the established cavitation intensity threshold and the calculated intensity from Equation (1). Therefore, the established cavitation threshold from casting light metals with sonication overestimates the acoustic intensity required to induce cavitation in laser-generated melt pools on vibrating substrates. In the future, we will explore the influence of acoustic intensity on cavitation, porosity, and microstructure refinement.

Discussion

The application of ultrasound in solidifying melt pools in laser-based AM has been shown to promote columnar to equiaxed grain transition57,58 resulting in improved and homogenized mechanical properties and random crystallographic orientations50. By adopting observed microstructural refinement mechanisms in casting with ultrasonic treatment, acoustic cavitation and streaming28 have been hypothesized as the primary driving mechanisms of microstructural refinement in laser-based AM. Unambiguous evidence of cavitation in sub-millimeter scale and opaque laser-generated melt pools has been elusive until now. Here, the real-time influence of ultrasonic vibration on melt pool, keyhole, and bubble dynamics and the solidification of laser-generated melt pools was revealed. We also elucidated the impact of ultrasonic vibration at 20.2 kHz on melt pool and keyhole morphologies. Furthermore, we explained the potential influence of ultrasonic vibration on laser energy absorptivity and its benefits in AM. EBSD and XCT techniques were used to analyze the microstructures and solidification structures with and without applied sonication. The influence of ultrasonic vibration on melt pool flow velocity, pressure distribution, and solidification conditions with and without sonication was investigated using Flow-3DⓇ multiphysics CFD simulation software.

Melt pool and keyhole dynamics in laser-based AM processes influence porosity formation mechanisms38 and dictate the resulting solidification microstructures59 and mechanical properties60 of AM components. Marangoni flow, recoil pressure, and surface tension are some of the major driving forces governing melt pool and keyhole dynamics27. Generating melt pools on a substrate vibrating at ultrasonic frequencies introduces an additional force that drives melt pool flow in the wave propagation direction (i.e., acoustic streaming)37, which competes with existing forces in the melt pool. We used high-speed synchrotron X-ray imaging and Flow-3DⓇ simulations to show that acoustic streaming dominates the melt pool and keyhole dynamics in the laser-generated melt pool with sonication. Moreover, physical evidence of real-time acoustic cavitation in submillimeter-sized laser-generated melt pools was revealed in situ using high-speed X-ray imaging. Ultrasonic vibration was observed to increase bubble density in the melt pool and promote bubble migration toward the melt pool surface. X-ray computed tomography scan of the final solidification structure further demonstrated that ultrasonic vibration drives pores toward the melt pool surface and that vibration amplitude influences molten metal flow rather than ultrasonic wavelength.

Keyhole morphology analysis from high-speed X-ray images revealed a wide and shallow keyhole with applied sonication. A deep and narrow keyhole was observed in the case without sonication. Deep and narrow keyhole geometries are susceptible to keyhole tip collapse porosity32; therefore, by changing the keyhole morphology, ultrasonic treatment could potentially eliminate one of the major porosity formation mechanisms in laser AM. It is important, however, to note that sonication-induced cavitation resulted in porosity, as revealed by post-process EBSD and X-ray computed tomography scan results Therefore, these observations spark interest in further investigations on ultrasonic wave parameter optimization to leverage cavitation for porosity reduction and location-specific microstructural refinement. Furthermore, cavitation-induced porosity in AM ultrasonic melt processing could be used to manufacture porous structures for biomedical applications. Frequency modulation and the use of multiple ultrasound sources could potentially provide a certain degree of control over cavitation in laser-generated metal pools.

The application of ultrasonic vibration in laser-based AM was considered to increase the laser beam reflection from the liquid/gas interface in the melt pool because of increased keyhole depth caused by the raised keyhole rim. Increased laser beam reflection can potentially improve laser energy absorptivity61, resulting in larger melt volumes. On the other hand, applying ultrasonic treatment through out-of-plane vibration increased hot spattering due to the molten metal droplets pinching off the melt pool at peak positive and negative vibration amplitudes. Further optimizing vibration frequency, amplitudes, and direction can help mitigate hot spattering.

To investigate the influence of ultrasonic treatment on solidification and microstructural development, we utilized Flow-3DⓇ multiphysics simulations validated with real-time high-speed synchrotron X-ray images of melt pool dynamics. Flow-3DⓇ simulation results showed pressure variation-driven acoustic cavitation in melt pools with applied ultrasonic treatment. The pressure variation in melt pools with and without applied ultrasound was analyzed during the solidification phase (i.e., after the laser was switched off) using color maps. Ultrasonic treatment was also observed to promote high melt pool velocities, cooling rates, and thermal gradients. Higher thermal gradients and melt pool velocities create stronger cooling effects and promote heterogeneous nucleation and grain refinement.

In summary, we provided evidence of acoustic cavitation in laser-generated molten metal pools on sonicated substrates using both high-speed X-ray imaging and CFD simulations. We further showed that ultrasonic treatment influenced melt pool and keyhole dynamics and could potentially eliminate some major keyhole porosity driving mechanisms. We also demonstrated through simulations that ultrasonic treatment creates favorable conditions for heterogeneous nucleation and grain refinement. These results facilitate further investigation into the influence of ultrasonic treatment on microstructural refinement and mechanical property improvement in laser-based AM processes.

Methods

Materials and sample preparation

Al6061 alloy was chosen as the material of interest because of its widespread usage in lightweight material industries such as automotive, aerospace, and many others. Unfortunately, Al6061 is extremely challenging to use in welding or AM because of thermal cracking. Thus, this research has a broader goal of investigating techniques to improve the printability of such alloys. Moreover, manufacturing methods, processes, and conditions highly influence Al6061 grain sizes and mechanical properties, as demonstrated by Eskin44 in the ultrasonic treatment of light metallic alloys. Secondly, applications of Al6061 as an additive manufacturing material have been limited because of residual stress build-up62. Lastly, Al6061 has liquidus and solidus temperatures of 660 °C and 595 °C, respectively, enabling sizable mushy zones necessary for effective and efficient ultrasonic treatment. Al6061 samples with a length of 20 mm, a height of 12 mm, and a thickness of 1.5 mm were used in our experiments. A thickness of 1.5 mm allowed adequate X-ray absorption contrast between the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases during laser melting, making it easy to identify melt pool features (i.e., vapor/gas depression, bubbles, solid-liquid interfaces.).

Ultrasonic wave generation system

Al6061 specimens were adhered to an ultrasonic transducer horn using an adhesive, as illustrated in Supplementary Fig. 1. A 20.2 kHz high-power ultrasonic transducer by Hangzhou Altrasonic Technology Co., Ltd., with a maximum power of 2000 W, was used in this study. The ultrasonic system consisted of a horn, piezoelectric elements, and an ultrasonic generator. The ultrasonic generator converts the power source into high-frequency and high-voltage alternating current and transmits it to the piezoelectric elements, which convert the input electrical energy into mechanical energy (i.e., ultrasonic waves). In our experiments, the transducer generated a continuous longitudinal wave and was operated at the horn’s resonant frequency of 20.2 kHz, with a power of 600 W and vibration amplitude of 8 μm. The transducer power and short time intervals of ultrasonic wave application were chosen to prevent the transducer horn overheating, which may influence melt pool solidification rates and thermal gradients. A custom-designed relay apparatus operated from outside the experimental hutch controlled the transducer on/off switching and the duration of ultrasonic vibration.

X-ray imaging and laser melting system

Experiments were conducted using the high-energy ultrafast synchrotron X-ray imaging system available at the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, USA. The 32-ID-B beamline at the Advanced Photon Source offers a state-of-the-art high-speed X-ray imaging technique. The intense undulator white beam allows ultrafast image acquisition rates of 50 kHz with a spatial resolution of 2 μm/pixel in a field of view of 1.8 × 1 mm. In addition, a continuous-wave ytterbium fiber laser (IPG YLR-500-AC, IPG Photonics, Oxford, USA, wavelength of 1070 nm, maximum output power of 560 W) and a galvanometer scanner (IntelliSCANde 30, SCANLAB GmbH., Germany)38 were integrated to perform stationary laser melting on bare Al6061 samples. A laser power of 350 W was used in the experiments. Experiments were conducted in the following sequence: the X-ray shutter and camera were first opened to initiate image acquisition. Secondly, the ultrasonic transducer was switched on, and lastly, the laser was turned on. The experimental setup and sequence allowed the sample melting, vapor depression development, and melt pool solidification occurring in an acoustic field to be captured via X-ray imaging. The laser was switched on for 3.34 ms for both cases with and without ultrasonic treatment.

EBSD and X-ray computed tomography analysis

Electron backscattered diffraction patterns (EBSPs) were obtained in the Oxford scanning electron microscope (SEM) instrument by focusing an electron beam on the Al6061 sample. The final polishing of the Al6061 sample was conducted using the Final A polishing pad with 0.04-micron colloidal silica suspension for 12 h. The sample was tilted to approximately 70 degrees with respect to the horizontal, and the diffraction patterns were imaged on a phosphor screen. The images were captured using a low-light CMOS camera. A 1.5-micron step size was used for both samples with and without ultrasonic treatment. The X-ray computed tomography scan was conducted with a Zeiss Xradia Versa 620 CT system using a source accelerating voltage of 80 kV. Images were acquired over 2 h at a voxel size of 1.5 μm and reconstructed using Zeiss proprietary software. The dicom image files were then processed using MATLAB to reveal the influence of ultrasonic vibration on the final solidification structure of the melt pools. A 3D view of sonication-induced pores showing the influence of ultrasonic vibration amplitude on the melt pool solidification was captured using the 3D volume viewer tool in MATLAB.

Image processing

MATLAB image processing toolkit and ImageJ were utilized in the X-ray image analysis. MATLAB codes were developed to normalize a sequence of X-ray images with their average pixel values. To create an X-ray image sequence with a uniform gray value, images within a 5% range of gray values were grouped together. A normalization operation was applied to each distinct group, which allowed enhanced visualization of melt pool features, keyhole dynamics, and bubble motion. Measurements of the melt pool and keyhole depth changes and bubble motion characterization were conducted using ImageJ. Maximum depths and widths on each X-ray frame measured in ImageJ were used to characterize melt pool and keyhole dynamics. The peak-to-peak vibration amplitude on the Al6061 sample surface was also measured as 16 μm using ImageJ.

Multiphysics computational fluid dynamic simulations

A 1 mm2 domain with a 4-μm mesh size was used in the CFD simulations on the Flow-3DⓇ platform. The simulation finish time was set at 1.3 ms, and the laser on time was set at 0.8 ms. Similar to our experiments, the laser power used in the simulations was 350 W, with a laser spot size of 80-μm. Ultrasonic vibration was introduced by defining a non-inertial reference frame with harmonic oscillations on the melt volume (i.e., substrate). The oscillation frequency was set at 20.2 kHz and an amplitude of 8-μm. The execution time for each simulation with and without ultrasonic treatment was one day and 16 h, with each model generating a 2.5 TB output data file (More details on the simulation setup, boundary conditions, and governing equations are provided in Supplementary Material Section 2).

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Simulation of EPS foam decomposition in the lost foam casting process

X.J. Liu a,∗, S.H. Bhavnani b,1, R.A. Overfelt c,2
a United States Steel Corporation, Great Lakes Works, #1 Quality Drive, Ecorse, MI 48229, United States b 213 Ross Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5341, United States c 202 Ross Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Engineering Program, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5341, United States
Received 17 April 2006; received in revised form 14 July 2006; accepted 21 August 2006

Keywords: Lost foam casting; Heat transfer coefficient; Gas pressure; VOF-FAVOR

LFC (Loss Foam Casting) 공정에서 부드러운 몰드 충진의 중요성은 오랫동안 인식되어 왔습니다. 충진 공정이 균일할수록 생산되는 주조 제품의 품질이 향상됩니다. 성공적인 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션은 금형 충전 공정에서 복잡한 메커니즘과 다양한 공정 매개 변수의 상호 작용을 더 잘 이해함으로써 새로운 주조 제품 설계의 시도 횟수를 줄이고 리드 타임을 줄이는데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

이 연구에서는 용융 알루미늄의 유체 흐름과 금속과 발포 폴리스티렌 (EPS) 폼 패턴 사이의 계면 갭에 관련된 열 전달을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 전산 유체 역학 (CFD) 모델이 개발되었습니다.

상업용 코드 FLOW-3D는 VOF (Volume of Fluid) 방법으로 용융 금속의 전면을 추적 할 수 있고 FAVOR (Fractional Area / Volume Ratios) 방법으로 복잡한 부품을 모델링 할 수 있기 때문에 사용되었습니다. 이 코드는 폼 열화 및 코팅 투과성과 관련된 기체 갭 압력을 기반으로 다양한 계면 열 전달 계수 (VHTC)의 효과를 포함하도록 수정되었습니다.

수정은 실험 연구에 대해 검증되었으며 비교는 FLOW-3D의 기본 상수 열 전달 (CHTC) 모델보다 더 나은 일치를 보여주었습니다. 금속 전면 온도는 VHTC 모델에 의해 실험적 불확실성 내에서 예측되었습니다. 몰드 충전 패턴과 1-4 초의 충전 시간 차이는 여러 형상에 대해 CHTC 모델보다 VHTC 모델에 의해 더 정확하게 포착되었습니다. 이 연구는 전통적으로 매우 경험적인 분야에서 중요한 프로세스 및 설계 변수의 효과에 대한 추가 통찰력을 제공했습니다.

지난 20 년 동안 LFC (Loss Foam Casting) 공정은 코어가 필요없는 복잡한 부품을 제조하기 위해 널리 채택되었습니다. 이는 자동차 제조업체가 현재 LFC 기술을 사용하여 광범위한 엔진 블록과 실린더 헤드를 생산하기 때문에 알루미늄 주조 산업에서 특히 그렇습니다.

기본 절차, 적용 및 장점은 [1]에서 찾을 수 있습니다. LFC 프로세스는 주로 숙련 된 실무자의 경험적 지식을 기반으로 개발되었습니다. 발포 폴리스티렌 (EPS) 발포 분해의 수치 모델링은 최근에야 설계 및 공정 변수를 최적화하는 데 유용한 통찰력을 제공 할 수있는 지점에 도달했습니다. LFC 공정에서 원하는 모양의 발포 폴리스티렌 폼 패턴을 적절한 게이팅 시스템이있는 모래 주형에 배치합니다.

폼 패턴은 용융 금속 전면이 패턴으로 진행될 때 붕괴, 용융, 기화 및 열화를 겪습니다. 전진하는 금속 전면과 후퇴하는 폼 패턴 사이의 간격 인 운동 영역은 Warner et al. [2] LFC 프로세스를 모델링합니다. 금형 충진 과정에서 분해 산물은 운동 영역에서 코팅층을 통해 모래로 빠져 나갑니다.

용융 금속과 폼 패턴 사이의 복잡한 반응은 LFC 공정의 시뮬레이션을 극도로 어렵게 만듭니다. SOLA-VOF (SOLution AlgorithmVolume of Fluid) 방법이 Hirt와 Nichols [3]에 의해 처음 공식화 되었기 때문에 빈 금형을 사용한 전통적인 모래 주조 시뮬레이션은 광범위하게 연구되었습니다.

Lost foam 주조 공정은 기존의 모래 주조와 많은 특성을 공유하기 때문에이 새로운 공정을 모델링하는 데 적용된 이론과 기술은 대부분 기존의 모래 주조를 위해 개발 된 시뮬레이션 방법에서 비롯되었습니다. 패턴 분해 속도가 금속성 헤드와 금속 전면 온도의 선형 함수라고 가정함으로써 Wang et al. [4]는 기존의 모래 주조의 기존 컴퓨터 프로그램을 기반으로 복잡한 3D 형상에서 Lost foam 주조 공정을 시뮬레이션했습니다.

Liu et al. [5]는 금속 앞쪽 속도를 예측하기 위한 간단한 1D 수학적 모델과 함께 운동 영역의 배압을 포함했습니다. Mirbagheri et al. [6]은 SOLA-VOF 기술을 기반으로 금속 전면의 자유 표면에 대한 압력 보정 방식을 사용하는 Foam 열화 모델을 개발했습니다.

Kuo et al.에 의해 유사한 배압 방식이 채택되었습니다. [7] 운동량 방정식에서이 힘의 값은 실험 결과에 따라 패턴의 충전 순서를 연구하기 위해 조정되었습니다.

이러한 시뮬레이션의 대부분은 LFC 공정의 충전 속도가 기존의 모래 주조 공정보다 훨씬 느린 것으로 성공적으로 예측합니다. 그러나 Foam 분해의 역할은 대부분 모델의 일부가 아니며 시뮬레이션을 수행하려면 실험 데이터 또는 경험적 함수가 필요합니다.

현재 연구는 일정한 열전달 계수 (CHTC)를 사용하는 상용 코드 FLOW-3D의 기본 LFC 모델을 수정하여 Foam 열화와 관련된 기체 갭 압력에 따라 다양한 열전달 계수 (VHTC)의 영향을 포함합니다. 코팅 투과성. 수정은 여러 공정 변수에 대한 실험 연구에 대해 검증되었습니다.

또한, 손실 된 폼 주조에서 가장 중요한 문제인 결함 형성은 문헌에서 인용 된 수치 작업에서 모델링되지 않았습니다. 접힘, 내부 기공 및 표면 기포와 같은 열분해 결함은 LFC 작업에서 많은 양의 스크랩을 설명합니다. FLOW-3D의 결함 예측 기능은 프로세스를 이해하고 최적화하는데 매우 중요합니다.

Fig. 7. Comparison of mold filling times for a plate pattern with three ingates: (a) measured values by thermometric technique [18]; (b) predicted filling times based on basic CHTC model with gravity effect; and (c) predicted filing times based on the VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient changing with gas pressure; (d) mold filling time at the right-and wall of the mold for the plate pattern with three ingates.
Fig. 7. Comparison of mold filling times for a plate pattern with three ingates: (a) measured values by thermometric technique [18]; (b) predicted filling times based on basic CHTC model with gravity effect; and (c) predicted filing times based on the VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient changing with gas pressure; (d) mold filling time at the right-and wall of the mold for the plate pattern with three ingates.
Fig. 10. Defects formation predicted by (a) basic CHTC model with gravity effect; (b) VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient based on both gas pressure and coating thickness; and (c) improved model for two ingates. Color represents probability for defects (blue is the lowest and red highest).
Fig. 10. Defects formation predicted by (a) basic CHTC model with gravity effect; (b) VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient based on both gas pressure and coating thickness; and (c) improved model for two ingates. Color represents probability for defects (blue is the lowest and red highest).
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[11] W. Sun, P. Scarber Jr., H. Littleton, Validation and improvement of computer modeling of the lost foam casting process via real time X-ray technology, in: Multiphase Phenomena and CFD Modeling and Simulation in
Materials Processes, Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 2004, pp. 245–251.
[12] T.V. Molibog, Modeling of metal/pattern replacement in the lost foam casting process, Materials Engineering, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Ph.D. Thesis, 2002.
[13] X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, Measurement of kinetic zone temperature and heat transfer coefficient in the lost foam casting process, ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Congr. (2004) 411–418.
[14] X. Yao, An experimental analysis of casting formation in the expendable
pattern casting (EPC) process, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, M.S. Thesis, 1994.
[15] M.R. Barkhudarov, C.W. Hirt, Tracking defects, Die Casting Engineer 43 (1) (1999) 44–52.
[16] C.W. Hirt, Modeling the Lost Foam Process with Defect PredictionsProgress Report: Lost-Foam Model Extensions, Wicking, Flow Science Inc., 1999.
[17] D. Wang, Thermophysical Properties, Solidification Design Center, Auburn University, 2001.
[18] S. Shivkumar, B. Gallois, Physico-chemical aspects of the full mold casting of aluminum alloys, part II: metal flow in simple patterns, AFS Trans. 95 (1987) 801–812.

Simulation Gallery

Simulation Gallery

Simulation Gallery | 시뮬레이션 갤러리

시뮬레이션 비디오 갤러리에서 FLOW-3D  제품군으로 모델링 할 수 있는 다양한 가능성을 살펴보십시오 .

적층 제조 시뮬레이션 갤러리

FLOW-3D AM 은 레이저 파우더 베드 융합, 바인더 제트 및 직접 에너지 증착과 같은 적층 제조 공정을 시뮬레이션하고 분석합니다. FLOW-3D AM 의 다중 물리 기능은 공정 매개 변수의 분석 및 최적화를 위해 분말 확산 및 압축, 용융 풀 역학, L-PBF 및 DED에 대한 다공성 형성, 바인더 분사 공정을 위한 수지 침투 및 확산에 대한 매우 정확한 시뮬레이션을 제공합니다. 

Multi-material Laser Powder Bed Fusion | FLOW-3D AM

Micro and meso scale simulations using FLOW-3D AM help us understand the mixing of different materials in the melt pool and the formation of potential defects such as lack of fusion and porosity. In this simulation, the stainless steel and aluminum powders have independently-defined temperature dependent material properties that FLOW-3D AM tracks to accurately capture the melt pool dynamics. Learn more about FLOW-3D AM’s mutiphysics simulation capabilities at https://www.flow3d.com/products/flow3…

FLOW-3D AM 에 대해 자세히 알아보기

Laser Welding Simulation Gallery

FLOW-3D WELD 는 레이저 용접 공정에 대한 강력한 통찰력을 제공하여 공정 최적화를 달성합니다. 더 나은 공정 제어로 다공성, 열 영향 영역을 최소화하고 미세 구조 진화를 제어 할 수 있습니다. 레이저 용접 공정을 정확하게 시뮬레이션하기 위해 FLOW-3D WELD 는 레이저 열원, 레이저-재료 상호 작용, 유체 흐름, 열 전달, 표면 장력, 응고, 다중 레이저 반사 및 위상 변화를 특징으로 합니다.

Keyhole welding simulation | FLOW-3D WELD

FLOW-3D WELD 에 대해 자세히 알아보기

물 및 환경 시뮬레이션 갤러리

FLOW-3D 는 물고기 통로, 댐 파손, 배수로, 눈사태, 수력 발전 및 기타 수자원 및 환경 공학 과제 모델링을 포함하여 유압 산업에 대한 많은 응용 분야를 가지고 있습니다. 엔지니어는 수력 발전소의 기존 인프라 용량을 늘리고, 어류 통로, 수두 손실을 최소화하는 흡입구, 포 이베이 설계 및 테일 레이스 흐름을위한 개선 된 설계를 개발하고, 수세 및 퇴적 및 공기 유입을 분석 할 수 있습니다.

FLOW-3D HYDRO 에 대해 자세히 알아보기

금속 주조 시뮬레이션 갤러리

FLOW-3D CAST  에는 캐스팅을 위해 특별히 설계된 광범위하고 강력한 물리적 모델이 포함되어 있습니다. 이러한 특수 모델에는 lost foam casting, non-Newtonian fluids, and die cycling에 대한 알고리즘이 포함됩니다. FLOW-3D CAST 의 강력한 시뮬레이션 엔진과 결함 예측을 위한 새로운 도구는 설계주기를 단축하고 비용을 절감 할 수 있는 통찰력을 제공합니다.

HPDC |Comparison of slow shot profiles and entrained air during a filling simulation |FLOW-3D CAST

Shown is a video comparing two slow shot profiles. The graphs highlight the shot profiles through time and the difference in entrained air between the slow shots. Note the lack of air entrained in shot sleeve with calculated shot profile which yields a much better controlled flow within the shot sleeve.

FLOW-3D CAST 에 대해 자세히 알아보기

Coastal & Maritime Applications | FLOW-3D

FLOW-3D는 선박 설계, 슬로싱 다이내믹스, 파동 충격 및 환기 등 연안 및 해양 애플리케이션에 이상적인 소프트웨어입니다. 연안 애플리케이션의 경우 FLOW-3D는 연안 구조물에 심각한 폭풍과 쓰나미 파장의 세부 정보를 정확하게 예측하고 플래시 홍수 및 중요 구조물 홍수 및 손상 분석에 사용됩니다.

FLOW-3D 조선/해양에 대해 자세히 알아보기

주조 분야

Metal Casting

주조제품, 금형의 설계 과정에서 FLOW-3D의 사용은 회사의 수익성 개선에 직접적인 영향을 줍니다.
(주)에스티아이씨앤디에서는  FLOW-3D를 통해 해결한 수많은 경험과 전문 지식을 엔지니어와 설계자에게 제공합니다.

품질 및 생산성 문제는 빠른 시간 안에 시뮬레이션을 통해 예측 가능하므로 낮은 비용으로 해결 할수 있습니다. FLOW-3D는 특별히 주조해석의 정확성 향상을 위한 다양한 설계 물리 모델들을 포함하고 있습니다.

이 모델에는 Lost Foam 주조, Non-newtonian 유체 및 금형의 다이싸이클링 해석에 대한 알고리즘 등을 포함하고 있습니다. 시뮬레이션의 정확성과 주조 제품의 품질을 향상시키고자 한다면, FLOW-3D는 여러분들의 이러한 요구를 충족시키는 제품입니다.

Ladle Pour Simulation by Nemak Poland Sp. z o.o.

 
 
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관련 기술자료

The Fastest Laptops for 2024

FLOW-3D 수치해석용 노트북 선택 가이드

2024년 가장 빠른 노트북 PCMag이 테스트하는 방법 소개 : 기사 원본 출처: https://www.pcmag.com/picks/the-fastest-laptops CFD를 수행하기 위한 노트북 선정 기준은 별도로 ...
더 보기
The experimental layout

Strength Prediction for Pearlitic Lamellar Graphite Iron: Model Validation

펄라이트 라멜라 흑연 철의 강도 예측: 모델 검증 Vasilios Fourlakidis, Ilia Belov, Attila Diószegi Abstract The present work provides validation ...
더 보기
Fig. 1. Protection matt over the scour pit.

Numerical study of the flow at a vertical pile with net-like scourprotection matt

그물형 세굴방지 매트를 사용한 수직말뚝의 유동에 대한 수치적 연구 Minxi Zhanga,b, Hanyan Zhaoc, Dongliang Zhao d, Shaolin Yuee, Huan Zhoue,Xudong ...
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그림 2.1 가공 후 부품 보기

1 m/s보다 빠른 속도에서 액체 금속의 움직임 연구

ESTUDIO MOVIMIENTO DE METAL LIQUIDO A VELOCIDADES MAYORES DE 1 M/S Author: Primitivo Carranza TormeSupervised by :Dr. Jesus Mª Blanco ...
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Figure 14. Defects: (a) Unmelt defects(Scheme NO.4);(b) Pores defects(Scheme NO.1); (c); Spattering defect (Scheme NO.3); (d) Low overlapping rate defects(Scheme NO.5).

Molten pool structure, temperature and velocity
flow in selective laser melting AlCu5MnCdVA alloy

용융 풀 구조, 선택적 온도 및 속도 흐름 레이저 용융 AlCu5MnCdVA 합금 Pan Lu1 , Zhang Cheng-Lin2,6,Wang Liang3, Liu Tong4 ...
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Figure 4.24 - Model with virtual valves in the extremities of the geometries to simulate the permeability of the mold promoting a more uniformed filling

Optimization of filling systems for low pressure by Flow-3D

Dissertação de MestradoCiclo de Estudos Integrados Conducentes aoGrau de Mestre em Engenharia MecânicaTrabalho efectuado sob a orientação doDoutor Hélder de ...
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Figure 1: Mold drawings

3D Flow and Temperature Analysis of Filling a Plutonium Mold

플루토늄 주형 충전의 3D 유동 및 온도 분석 Authors: Orenstein, Nicholas P. [1] Publication Date:2013-07-24Research Org.: Los Alamos National Lab ...
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Figure 5: 3D & 2D views of simulated fill sequence of a hollow cylinder at 1000 rpm and 1500 rpm at various time intervals during filling.

Computer Simulation of Centrifugal Casting Process using FLOW-3D

Aneesh Kumar J1, a, K. Krishnakumar1, b and S. Savithri2, c 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Thiruvananthapuram, ...
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Fig. 1. (a) Dimensions of the casting with runners (unit: mm), (b) a melt flow simulation using Flow-3D software together with Reilly's model[44], predicted that a large amount of bifilms (denoted by the black particles) would be contained in the final casting. (c) A solidification simulation using Pro-cast software showed that no shrinkage defect was contained in the final casting.

AZ91 합금 주물 내 연행 결함에 대한 캐리어 가스의 영향

TianLiabJ.M.T.DaviesaXiangzhenZhucaUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United KingdombGrainger and Worrall Ltd, Bridgnorth WV15 5HP, United KingdomcBrunel Centre for Advanced Solidification ...
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Gating System Design Based on Numerical Simulation and Production Experiment Verification of Aluminum Alloy Bracket Fabricated by Semi-solid Rheo-Die Casting Process

Gating System Design Based on Numerical Simulation and Production Experiment Verification of Aluminum Alloy Bracket Fabricated by Semi-solid Rheo-Die Casting Process

반고체 레오 다이 캐스팅 공정으로 제작된 알루미늄 합금 브래킷의 수치 시뮬레이션 및 생산 실험 검증을 기반으로 한 게이팅 시스템 설계 ...
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FLOW-3D CAST Bibliography

FLOW-3D CAST bibliography

아래는 FSI의 금속 주조 참고 문헌에 수록된 기술 논문 모음입니다. 이 모든 논문에는 FLOW-3D CAST 해석 결과가 수록되어 있습니다. FLOW-3D CAST를 사용하여 금속 주조 산업의 응용 프로그램을 성공적으로 시뮬레이션하는 방법에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오.

Below is a collection of technical papers in our Metal Casting Bibliography. All of these papers feature FLOW-3D CAST results. Learn more about how FLOW-3D CAST can be used to successfully simulate applications for the Metal Casting Industry.

33-20     Eric Riedel, Martin Liepe Stefan Scharf, Simulation of ultrasonic induced cavitation and acoustic streaming in liquid and solidifying aluminum, Metals, 10.4; 476, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10040476

20-20   Wu Yue, Li Zhuo and Lu Rong, Simulation and visual tester verification of solid propellant slurry vacuum plate casting, Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 2020. doi.org/10.1002/prep.201900411

17-20   C.A. Jones, M.R. Jolly, A.E.W. Jarfors and M. Irwin, An experimental characterization of thermophysical properties of a porous ceramic shell used in the investment casting process, Supplimental Proceedings, pp. 1095-1105, TMS 2020 149th Annual Meeting and Exhibition, San Diego, CA, February 23-27, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36296-6_102

12-20   Franz Josef Feikus, Paul Bernsteiner, Ricardo Fernández Gutiérrez and Michal Luszczak , Further development of electric motor housings, MTZ Worldwide, 81, pp. 38-43, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/s38313-019-0176-z

09-20   Mingfan Qi, Yonglin Kang, Yuzhao Xu, Zhumabieke Wulabieke and Jingyuan Li, A novel rheological high pressure die-casting process for preparing large thin-walled Al–Si–Fe–Mg–Sr alloy with high heat conductivity, high plasticity and medium strength, Materials Science and Engineering: A, 776, art. no. 139040, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.139040

07-20   Stefan Heugenhauser, Erhard Kaschnitz and Peter Schumacher, Development of an aluminum compound casting process – Experiments and numerical simulations, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 279, art. no. 116578, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.116578

05-20   Michail Papanikolaou, Emanuele Pagone, Mark Jolly and Konstantinos Salonitis, Numerical simulation and evaluation of Campbell running and gating systems, Metals, 10.1, art. no. 68, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10010068

102-19   Ferencz Peti and Gabriela Strnad, The effect of squeeze pin dimension and operational parameters on material homogeneity of aluminium high pressure die cast parts, Acta Marisiensis. Seria Technologica, 16.2, 2019. doi.org/0.2478/amset-2019-0010

94-19   E. Riedel, I. Horn, N. Stein, H. Stein, R. Bahr, and S. Scharf, Ultrasonic treatment: a clean technology that supports sustainability incasting processes, Procedia, 26th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, May 7-9, 2019. 

93-19   Adrian V. Catalina, Liping Xue, Charles A. Monroe, Robin D. Foley, and John A. Griffin, Modeling and Simulation of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AlSi- and AlCu-based Alloys, Transactions, 123rd Metalcasting Congress, Atlanta, GA, USA, April 27-30, 2019. 

84-19   Arun Prabhakar, Michail Papanikolaou, Konstantinos Salonitis, and Mark Jolly, Sand casting of sheet lead: numerical simulation of metal flow and solidification, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, pp. 1-13, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04522-3

72-19   Santosh Reddy Sama, Eric Macdonald, Robert Voigt, and Guha Manogharan, Measurement of metal velocity in sand casting during mold filling, Metals, 9:1079, 2019. doi.org/10.3390/met9101079

71-19   Sebastian Findeisen, Robin Van Der Auwera, Michael Heuser, and Franz-Josef Wöstmann, Gießtechnische Fertigung von E-Motorengehäusen mit interner Kühling (Casting production of electric motor housings with internal cooling), Geisserei, 106, pp. 72-78, 2019 (in German).

58-19     Von Malte Leonhard, Matthias Todte, and Jörg Schäffer, Realistic simulation of the combustion of exothermic feeders, Casting, No. 2, pp. 28-32, 2019. In English and German.

52-19     S. Lakkum and P. Kowitwarangkul, Numerical investigations on the effect of gas flow rate in the gas stirred ladle with dual plugs, International Conference on Materials Research and Innovation (ICMARI), Bangkok, Thailand, December 17-21, 2018. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 526, 2019. doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/526/1/012028

47-19     Bing Zhou, Shuai Lu, Kaile Xu, Chun Xu, and Zhanyong Wang, Microstructure and simulation of semisolid aluminum alloy castings in the process of stirring integrated transfer-heat (SIT) with water cooling, International Journal of Metalcasting, Online edition, pp. 1-13, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-019-00357-6

31-19     Zihao Yuan, Zhipeng Guo, and S.M. Xiong, Skin layer of A380 aluminium alloy die castings and its blistering during solution treatment, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, Vol. 35, No. 9, pp. 1906-1916, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2019.05.011

25-19     Stefano Mascetti, Raul Pirovano, and Giulio Timelli, Interazione metallo liquido/stampo: Il fenomeno della metallizzazione, La Metallurgia Italiana, No. 4, pp. 44-50, 2019. In Italian.

20-19     Fu-Yuan Hsu, Campbellology for runner system design, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 187-199, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_19

19-19     Chengcheng Lyu, Michail Papanikolaou, and Mark Jolly, Numerical process modelling and simulation of Campbell running systems designs, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 53-64, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_5

18-19     Adrian V. Catalina, Liping Xue, and Charles Monroe, A solidification model with application to AlSi-based alloys, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 201-213, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_20

17-19     Fu-Yuan Hsu and Yu-Hung Chen, The validation of feeder modeling for ductile iron castings, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 227-238, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_22

04-19   Santosh Reddy Sama, Tony Badamo, Paul Lynch and Guha Manogharan, Novel sprue designs in metal casting via 3D sand-printing, Additive Manufacturing, Vol. 25, pp. 563-578, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.009

02-19   Jingying Sun, Qichi Le, Li Fu, Jing Bai, Johannes Tretter, Klaus Herbold and Hongwei Huo, Gas entrainment behavior of aluminum alloy engine crankcases during the low-pressure-die-casting-process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 266, pp. 274-282, 2019. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.11.016

92-18   Fast, Flexible… More Versatile, Foundry Management Technology, March, 2018. 

82-18   Xu Zhao, Ping Wang, Tao Li, Bo-yu Zhang, Peng Wang, Guan-zhou Wang and Shi-qi Lu, Gating system optimization of high pressure die casting thin-wall AlSi10MnMg longitudinal loadbearing beam based on numerical simulation, China Foundry, Vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 436-442, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s41230-018-8052-z

80-18   Michail Papanikolaou, Emanuele Pagone, Konstantinos Salonitis, Mark Jolly and Charalampos Makatsoris, A computational framework towards energy efficient casting processes, Sustainable Design and Manufacturing 2018: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Sustainable Design and Manufacturing (KES-SDM-18), Gold Coast, Australia, June 24-26 2018, SIST 130, pp. 263-276, 2019. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04290-5_27

64-18   Vasilios Fourlakidis, Ilia Belov and Attila Diószegi, Strength prediction for pearlitic lamellar graphite iron: Model validation, Metals, Vol. 8, No. 9, 2018. doi.org/10.3390/met8090684

51-18   Xue-feng Zhu, Bao-yi Yu, Li Zheng, Bo-ning Yu, Qiang Li, Shu-ning Lü and Hao Zhang, Influence of pouring methods on filling process, microstructure and mechanical properties of AZ91 Mg alloy pipe by horizontal centrifugal casting, China Foundry, vol. 15, no. 3, pp.196-202, 2018. doi.org/10.1007/s41230-018-7256-6

47-18   Santosh Reddy Sama, Jiayi Wang and Guha Manogharan, Non-conventional mold design for metal casting using 3D sand-printing, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 34-B, pp. 765-775, 2018. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.03.049

42-18   M. Koru and O. Serçe, The Effects of Thermal and Dynamical Parameters and Vacuum Application on Porosity in High-Pressure Die Casting of A383 Al-Alloy, International Journal of Metalcasting, pp. 1-17, 2018. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-018-0214-7

41-18   Abhilash Viswanath, S. Savithri, U.T.S. Pillai, Similitude analysis on flow characteristics of water, A356 and AM50 alloys during LPC process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol. 257, pp. 270-277, 2018. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.02.031

29-18   Seyboldt, Christoph and Liewald, Mathias, Investigation on thixojoining to produce hybrid components with intermetallic phase, AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1960, no. 1, 2018. doi.org/10.1063/1.5034992

28-18   Laura Schomer, Mathias Liewald and Kim Rouven Riedmüller, Simulation of the infiltration process of a ceramic open-pore body with a metal alloy in semi-solid state to design the manufacturing of interpenetrating phase composites, AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1960, no. 1, 2018. doi.org/10.1063/1.5034991

41-17   Y. N. Wu et al., Numerical Simulation on Filling Optimization of Copper Rotor for High Efficient Electric Motors in Die Casting Process, Materials Science Forum, Vol. 898, pp. 1163-1170, 2017.

12-17   A.M.  Zarubin and O.A. Zarubina, Controlling the flow rate of melt in gravity die casting of aluminum alloys, Liteynoe Proizvodstvo (Casting Manufacturing), pp 16-20, 6, 2017. In Russian.

10-17   A.Y. Korotchenko, Y.V. Golenkov, M.V. Tverskoy and D.E. Khilkov, Simulation of the Flow of Metal Mixtures in the Mold, Liteynoe Proizvodstvo (Casting Manufacturing), pp 18-22, 5, 2017. In Russian.

08-17   Morteza Morakabian Esfahani, Esmaeil Hajjari, Ali Farzadi and Seyed Reza Alavi Zaree, Prediction of the contact time through modeling of heat transfer and fluid flow in compound casting process of Al/Mg light metals, Journal of Materials Research, © Materials Research Society 2017

04-17   Huihui Liu, Xiongwei He and Peng Guo, Numerical simulation on semi-solid die-casting of magnesium matrix composite based on orthogonal experiment, AIP Conference Proceedings 1829, 020037 (2017); doi.org/10.1063/1.4979769.

100-16  Robert Watson, New numerical techniques to quantify and predict the effect of entrainment defects, applied to high pressure die casting, PhD Thesis: University of Birmingham, 2016.

88-16   M.C. Carter, T. Kauffung, L. Weyenberg and C. Peters, Low Pressure Die Casting Simulation Discovery through Short Shot, Cast Expo & Metal Casting Congress, April 16-19, 2016, Minneapolis, MN, Copyright 2016 American Foundry Society.

61-16   M. Koru and O. Serçe, Experimental and numerical determination of casting mold interfacial heat transfer coefficient in the high pressure die casting of a 360 aluminum alloy, ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA A, Vol. 129 (2016)

59-16   R. Pirovano and S. Mascetti, Tracking of collapsed bubbles during a filling simulation, La Metallurgia Italiana – n. 6 2016

43-16   Kevin Lee, Understanding shell cracking during de-wax process in investment casting, Ph.D Thesis: University of Birmingham, School of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, 2016.

35-16   Konstantinos Salonitis, Mark Jolly, Binxu Zeng, and Hamid Mehrabi, Improvements in energy consumption and environmental impact by novel single shot melting process for casting, Journal of Cleaner Production, doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.165, Open Access funded by Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, June 29, 2016

20-16   Fu-Yuan Hsu, Bifilm Defect Formation in Hydraulic Jump of Liquid Aluminum, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 2016, Band: 47, Heft 3, 1634-1648.

15-16   Mingfan Qia, Yonglin Kanga, Bing Zhoua, Wanneng Liaoa, Guoming Zhua, Yangde Lib,and Weirong Li, A forced convection stirring process for Rheo-HPDC aluminum and magnesium alloys, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 234 (2016) 353–367

112-15   José Miguel Gonçalves Ledo Belo da Costa, Optimization of filling systems for low pressure by FLOW-3D, Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Mecânica, 2015.

89-15   B.W. Zhu, L.X. Li, X. Liu, L.Q. Zhang and R. Xu, Effect of Viscosity Measurement Method to Simulate High Pressure Die Casting of Thin-Wall AlSi10MnMg Alloy Castings, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Published online, November 2015, doi.org/10.1007/s11665-015-1783-8, © ASM International.

88-15   Peng Zhang, Zhenming Li, Baoliang Liu, Wenjiang Ding and Liming Peng, Improved tensile properties of a new aluminum alloy for high pressure die casting, Materials Science & Engineering A651(2016)376–390, Available online, November 2015.

83-15   Zu-Qi Hu, Xin-Jian Zhang and Shu-Sen Wu, Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Die-Filling Behavior of High-Performance Die-Cast Al–Mg–Si–Mn Alloy, Acta Metall. Sin. (Engl. Lett.), doi.org/10.1007/s40195-015-0332-7, © The Chinese Society for Metals and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015.

82-15   J. Müller, L. Xue, M.C. Carter, C. Thoma, M. Fehlbier and M. Todte, A Die Spray Cooling Model for Thermal Die Cycling Simulations, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

81-15   M. T. Murray, L.F. Hansen, L. Chilcott, E. Li and A.M. Murray, Case Studies in the Use of Simulation- Improved Yield and Reduced Time to Market, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

80-15   R. Bhola, S. Chandra and D. Souders, Predicting Castability of Thin-Walled Parts for the HPDC Process Using Simulations, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

76-15   Prosenjit Das, Sudip K. Samanta, Shashank Tiwari and Pradip Dutta, Die Filling Behaviour of Semi Solid A356 Al Alloy Slurry During Rheo Pressure Die Casting, Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, pp 1-6, October 2015

74-15   Murat KORU and Orhan SERÇE, Yüksek Basınçlı Döküm Prosesinde Enjeksiyon Parametrelerine Bağlı Olarak Döküm Simülasyon, Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Science, Science Journal (CSJ), Vol. 36, No: 5 (2015) ISSN: 1300-1949, May 2015

69-15   A. Viswanath, S. Sivaraman, U. T. S. Pillai, Computer Simulation of Low Pressure Casting Process Using FLOW-3D, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 830-831, pp. 45-48, September 2015

68-15   J. Aneesh Kumar, K. Krishnakumar and S. Savithri, Computer Simulation of Centrifugal Casting Process Using FLOW-3D, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 830-831, pp. 53-56, September 2015

59-15   F. Hosseini Yekta and S. A. Sadough Vanini, Simulation of the flow of semi-solid steel alloy using an enhanced model, Metals and Materials International, August 2015.

44-15   Ulrich E. Klotz, Tiziana Heiss and Dario Tiberto, Platinum investment casting material properties, casting simulation and optimum process parameters, Jewelry Technology Forum 2015

41-15   M. Barkhudarov and R. Pirovano, Minimizing Air Entrainment in High Pressure Die Casting Shot Sleeves, GIFA 2015, Düsseldorf, Germany

40-15   M. Todte, A. Fent, and H. Lang, Simulation in support of the development of innovative processes in the casting industry, GIFA 2015, Düsseldorf, Germany

19-15   Bruce Morey, Virtual casting improves powertrain design, Automotive Engineering, SAE International, March 2015.

15-15   K.S. Oh, J.D. Lee, S.J. Kim and J.Y. Choi, Development of a large ingot continuous caster, Metall. Res. Technol. 112, 203 (2015) © EDP Sciences, 2015, doi.org/10.1051/metal/2015006, www.metallurgical-research.org

14-15   Tiziana Heiss, Ulrich E. Klotz and Dario Tiberto, Platinum Investment Casting, Part I: Simulation and Experimental Study of the Casting Process, Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2015, 59, (2), 95, doi.org/10.1595/205651315×687399

138-14 Christopher Thoma, Wolfram Volk, Ruben Heid, Klaus Dilger, Gregor Banner and Harald Eibisch, Simulation-based prediction of the fracture elongation as a failure criterion for thin-walled high-pressure die casting components, International Journal of Metalcasting, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 47-54, 2014. doi.org/10.1007/BF03355594

107-14  Mehran Seyed Ahmadi, Dissolution of Si in Molten Al with Gas Injection, ProQuest Dissertations And Theses; Thesis (Ph.D.), University of Toronto (Canada), 2014; Publication Number: AAT 3637106; ISBN: 9781321195231; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 76-02(E), Section: B.; 191 p.

99-14   R. Bhola and S. Chandra, Predicting Castability for Thin-Walled HPDC Parts, Foundry Management Technology, December 2014

92-14   Warren Bishenden and Changhua Huang, Venting design and process optimization of die casting process for structural components; Part II: Venting design and process optimization, Die Casting Engineer, November 2014

90-14   Ken’ichi Kanazawa, Ken’ichi Yano, Jun’ichi Ogura, and Yasunori Nemoto, Optimum Runner Design for Die-Casting using CFD Simulations and Verification with Water-Model Experiments, Proceedings of the ASME 2014 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, IMECE2014, November 14-20, 2014, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, IMECE2014-37419

89-14   P. Kapranos, C. Carney, A. Pola, and M. Jolly, Advanced Casting Methodologies: Investment Casting, Centrifugal Casting, Squeeze Casting, Metal Spinning, and Batch Casting, In Comprehensive Materials Processing; McGeough, J., Ed.; 2014, Elsevier Ltd., 2014; Vol. 5, pp 39–67.

77-14   Andrei Y. Korotchenko, Development of Scientific and Technological Approaches to Casting Net-Shaped Castings in Sand Molds Free of Shrinkage Defects and Hot Tears, Post-doctoral thesis: Russian State Technological University, 2014. In Russian.

69-14   L. Xue, M.C. Carter, A.V. Catalina, Z. Lin, C. Li, and C. Qiu, Predicting, Preventing Core Gas Defects in Steel Castings, Modern Casting, September 2014

68-14   L. Xue, M.C. Carter, A.V. Catalina, Z. Lin, C. Li, and C. Qiu, Numerical Simulation of Core Gas Defects in Steel Castings, Copyright 2014 American Foundry Society, 118th Metalcasting Congress, April 8 – 11, 2014, Schaumburg, IL

51-14   Jesus M. Blanco, Primitivo Carranza, Rafael Pintos, Pedro Arriaga, and Lakhdar Remaki, Identification of Defects Originated during the Filling of Cast Pieces through Particles Modelling, 11th World Congress on Computational Mechanics (WCCM XI), 5th European Conference on Computational Mechanics (ECCM V), 6th European Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics (ECFD VI), E. Oñate, J. Oliver and A. Huerta (Eds)

47-14   B. Vijaya Ramnatha, C.Elanchezhiana, Vishal Chandrasekhar, A. Arun Kumarb, S. Mohamed Asif, G. Riyaz Mohamed, D. Vinodh Raj , C .Suresh Kumar, Analysis and Optimization of Gating System for Commutator End Bracket, Procedia Materials Science 6 ( 2014 ) 1312 – 1328, 3rd International Conference on Materials Processing and Characterisation (ICMPC 2014)

42-14  Bing Zhou, Yong-lin Kang, Guo-ming Zhu, Jun-zhen Gao, Ming-fan Qi, and Huan-huan Zhang, Forced convection rheoforming process for preparation of 7075 aluminum alloy semisolid slurry and its numerical simulation, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 24(2014) 1109−1116

37-14    A. Karwinski, W. Lesniewski, P. Wieliczko, and M. Malysza, Casting of Titanium Alloys in Centrifugal Induction Furnaces, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials, Volume 59, Issue 1, doi.org/10.2478/amm-2014-0068, 2014.

26-14    Bing Zhou, Yonglin Kang, Mingfan Qi, Huanhuan Zhang and Guoming Zhu, R-HPDC Process with Forced Convection Mixing Device for Automotive Part of A380 Aluminum Alloy, Materials 2014, 7, 3084-3105; doi.org/10.3390/ma7043084

20-14  Johannes Hartmann, Tobias Fiegl, Carolin Körner, Aluminum integral foams with tailored density profile by adapted blowing agents, Applied Physics A, doi.org/10.1007/s00339-014-8377-4, March 2014.

19-14    A.Y. Korotchenko, N.A. Nikiforova, E.D. Demjanov, N.C. Larichev, The Influence of the Filling Conditions on the Service Properties of the Part Side Frame, Russian Foundryman, 1 (January), pp 40-43, 2014. In Russian.

11-14 B. Fuchs and C. Körner, Mesh resolution consideration for the viability prediction of lost salt cores in the high pressure die casting process, Progress in Computational Fluid Dynamics, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2014, Copyright © 2014 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

08-14 FY Hsu, SW Wang, and HJ Lin, The External and Internal Shrinkages in Aluminum Gravity Castings, Shape Casting: 5th International Symposium 2014. Available online at Google Books

103-13  B. Fuchs, H. Eibisch and C. Körner, Core Viability Simulation for Salt Core Technology in High-Pressure Die Casting, International Journal of Metalcasting, July 2013, Volume 7, Issue 3, pp 39–45

94-13    Randall S. Fielding, J. Crapps, C. Unal, and J.R.Kennedy, Metallic Fuel Casting Development and Parameter Optimization Simulations, International Conference on Fast reators and Related Fuel Cycles (FR13), 4-7 March 2013, Paris France

90-13  A. Karwińskia, M. Małyszaa, A. Tchórza, A. Gila, B. Lipowska, Integration of Computer Tomography and Simulation Analysis in Evaluation of Quality of Ceramic-Carbon Bonded Foam Filter, Archives of Foundry Engineering, doi.org/10.2478/afe-2013-0084, Published quarterly as the organ of the Foundry Commission of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ISSN, (2299-2944), Volume 13, Issue 4/2013

88-13  Litie and Metallurgia (Casting and Metallurgy), 3 (72), 2013, N.V.Sletova, I.N.Volnov, S.P.Zadrutsky, V.A.Chaikin, Modeling of the Process of Removing Non-metallic Inclusions in Aluminum Alloys Using the FLOW-3D program, pp 138-140. In Russian.

85-13    Michał Szucki,Tomasz Goraj, Janusz Lelito, Józef S. Suchy, Numerical Analysis of Solid Particles Flow in Liquid Metal, XXXVII International Scientific Conference Foundryman’ Day 2013, Krakow, 28-29 November 2013

84-13  Körner, C., Schwankl, M., Himmler, D., Aluminum-Aluminum compound castings by electroless deposited zinc layers, Journal of Materials Processing Technology (2014), doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.12.01483-13.

77-13  Antonio Armillotta & Raffaello Baraggi & Simone Fasoli, SLM tooling for die casting with conformal cooling channels, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, doi.org/10.1007/s00170-013-5523-7, December 2013.

64-13   Johannes Hartmann, Christina Blümel, Stefan Ernst, Tobias Fiegl, Karl-Ernst Wirth, Carolin Körner, Aluminum integral foam castings with microcellular cores by nano-functionalization, J Mater Sci, doi.org/10.1007/s10853-013-7668-z, September 2013.

46-13  Nicholas P. Orenstein, 3D Flow and Temperature Analysis of Filling a Plutonium Mold, LA-UR-13-25537, Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. Los Alamos Annual Student Symposium 2013, 2013-07-24 (Rev.1)

42-13   Yang Yue, William D. Griffiths, and Nick R. Green, Modelling of the Effects of Entrainment Defects on Mechanical Properties in a Cast Al-Si-Mg Alloy, Materials Science Forum, 765, 225, 2013.

39-13  J. Crapps, D.S. DeCroix, J.D Galloway, D.A. Korzekwa, R. Aikin, R. Fielding, R. Kennedy, C. Unal, Separate effects identification via casting process modeling for experimental measurement of U-Pu-Zr alloys, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 15 July 2013.

35-13   A. Pari, Real Life Problem Solving through Simulations in the Die Casting Industry – Case Studies, © Die Casting Engineer, July 2013.

34-13  Martin Lagler, Use of Simulation to Predict the Viability of Salt Cores in the HPDC Process – Shot Curve as a Decisive Criterion, © Die Casting Engineer, July 2013.

24-13    I.N.Volnov, Optimizatsia Liteynoi Tekhnologii, (Casting Technology Optimization), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), 3, 2013, 27-29. In Russian

23-13  M.R. Barkhudarov, I.N. Volnov, Minimizatsia Zakhvata Vozdukha v Kamere Pressovania pri Litie pod Davleniem, (Minimization of Air Entrainment in the Shot Sleeve During High Pressure Die Casting), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), 3, 2013, 30-34. In Russian

09-13  M.C. Carter and L. Xue, Simulating the Parameters that Affect Core Gas Defects in Metal Castings, Copyright 2012 American Foundry Society, Presented at the 2013 CastExpo, St. Louis, Missouri, April 2013

08-13  C. Reilly, N.R. Green, M.R. Jolly, J.-C. Gebelin, The Modelling Of Oxide Film Entrainment In Casting Systems Using Computational Modelling, Applied Mathematical Modelling, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2013.03.061, April 2013.

03-13  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A fast simulation of transient metal flow and solidification in a narrow channel. Part II. Model validation and parametric study, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.12.061.

02-13  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A fast simulation of transient metal flow and solidification in a narrow channel. Part I: Model development using lubrication approximation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.12.060.

116-12  Jufu Jianga, Ying Wang, Gang Chena, Jun Liua, Yuanfa Li and Shoujing Luo, “Comparison of mechanical properties and microstructure of AZ91D alloy motorcycle wheels formed by die casting and double control forming, Materials & Design, Volume 40, September 2012, Pages 541-549.

107-12  F.K. Arslan, A.H. Hatman, S.Ö. Ertürk, E. Güner, B. Güner, An Evaluation for Fundamentals of Die Casting Materials Selection and Design, IMMC’16 International Metallurgy & Materials Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, 2012.

103-12 WU Shu-sen, ZHONG Gu, AN Ping, WAN Li, H. NAKAE, Microstructural characteristics of Al−20Si−2Cu−0.4Mg−1Ni alloy formed by rheo-squeeze casting after ultrasonic vibration treatment, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 22 (2012) 2863-2870, November 2012. Full paper available online.

109-12 Alexandre Reikher, Numerical Analysis of Die-Casting Process in Thin Cavities Using Lubrication Approximation, Ph.D. Thesis: The University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Engineering Department (2012) Theses and Dissertations. Paper 65.

97-12 Hong Zhou and Li Heng Luo, Filling Pattern of Step Gating System in Lost Foam Casting Process and its Application, Advanced Materials Research, Volumes 602-604, Progress in Materials and Processes, 1916-1921, December 2012.

93-12  Liangchi Zhang, Chunliang Zhang, Jeng-Haur Horng and Zichen Chen, Functions of Step Gating System in the Lost Foam Casting Process, Advanced Materials Research, 591-593, 940, DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.591-593.940, November 2012.

91-12  Hong Yan, Jian Bin Zhu, Ping Shan, Numerical Simulation on Rheo-Diecasting of Magnesium Matrix Composites, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.192-193.287, Solid State Phenomena, 192-193, 287.

89-12  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A Fast Numerical Simulation for Modeling Simultaneous Metal Flow and Solidification in Thin Cavities Using the Lubrication Approximation, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications: An International Journal of Computation and Methodology, 63:2, 75-100, November 2012.

82-12  Jufu Jiang, Gang Chen, Ying Wang, Zhiming Du, Weiwei Shan, and Yuanfa Li, Microstructure and mechanical properties of thin-wall and high-rib parts of AM60B Mg alloy formed by double control forming and die casting under the optimal conditions, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.10.086, October 2012.

78-12   A. Pari, Real Life Problem Solving through Simulations in the Die Casting Industry – Case Studies, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

77-12  Y. Wang, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian and R.A. Miller, Rheological behavior models of metal matrix alloys in semi-solid casting process, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

76-12  A. Reikher and H. Gerber, Analysis of Solidification Parameters During the Die Cast Process, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

75-12 R.A. Miller, Y. Wang and K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, Estimating Cavity Fill Time, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

65-12  X.H. Yang, T.J. Lu, T. Kim, Influence of non-conducting pore inclusions on phase change behavior of porous media with constant heat flux boundary, International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Available online 10 October 2012. Available online at SciVerse.

55-12  Hejun Li, Pengyun Wang, Lehua Qi, Hansong Zuo, Songyi Zhong, Xianghui Hou, 3D numerical simulation of successive deposition of uniform molten Al droplets on a moving substrate and experimental validation, Computational Materials Science, Volume 65, December 2012, Pages 291–301.

52-12 Hongbing Ji, Yixin Chen and Shengzhou Chen, Numerical Simulation of Inner-Outer Couple Cooling Slab Continuous Casting in the Filling Process, Advanced Materials Research (Volumes 557-559), Advanced Materials and Processes II, pp. 2257-2260, July 2012.

47-12    Petri Väyrynen, Lauri Holappa, and Seppo Louhenkilpi, Simulation of Melting of Alloying Materials in Steel Ladle, SCANMET IV – 4th International Conference on Process Development in Iron and Steelmaking, Lulea, Sweden, June 10-13, 2012.

46-12  Bin Zhang and Dave Salee, Metal Flow and Heat Transfer in Billet DC Casting Using Wagstaff® Optifill™ Metal Distribution Systems, 5th International Metal Quality Workshop, United Arab Emirates Dubai, March 18-22, 2012.

45-12 D.R. Gunasegaram, M. Givord, R.G. O’Donnell and B.R. Finnin, Improvements engineered in UTS and elongation of aluminum alloy high pressure die castings through the alteration of runner geometry and plunger velocity, Materials Science & Engineering.

44-12    Antoni Drys and Stefano Mascetti, Aluminum Casting Simulations, Desktop Engineering, September 2012

42-12   Huizhen Duan, Jiangnan Shen and Yanping Li, Comparative analysis of HPDC process of an auto part with ProCAST and FLOW-3D, Applied Mechanics and Materials Vols. 184-185 (2012) pp 90-94, Online available since 2012/Jun/14 at www.scientific.net, © (2012) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland, doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.184-185.90.

41-12    Deniece R. Korzekwa, Cameron M. Knapp, David A. Korzekwa, and John W. Gibbs, Co-Design – Fabrication of Unalloyed Plutonium, LA-UR-12-23441, MDI Summer Research Group Workshop Advanced Manufacturing, 2012-07-25/2012-07-26 (Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States)

29-12  Dario Tiberto and Ulrich E. Klotz, Computer simulation applied to jewellery casting: challenges, results and future possibilities, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng.33 012008. Full paper available at IOP.

28-12  Y Yue and N R Green, Modelling of different entrainment mechanisms and their influences on the mechanical reliability of Al-Si castings, 2012 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 33,012072.Full paper available at IOP.

27-12  E Kaschnitz, Numerical simulation of centrifugal casting of pipes, 2012 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 33 012031, Issue 1. Full paper available at IOP.

15-12  C. Reilly, N.R Green, M.R. Jolly, The Present State Of Modeling Entrainment Defects In The Shape Casting Process, Applied Mathematical Modelling, Available online 27 April 2012, ISSN 0307-904X, 10.1016/j.apm.2012.04.032.

12-12   Andrei Starobin, Tony Hirt, Hubert Lang, and Matthias Todte, Core drying simulation and validation, International Foundry Research, GIESSEREIFORSCHUNG 64 (2012) No. 1, ISSN 0046-5933, pp 2-5

10-12  H. Vladimir Martínez and Marco F. Valencia (2012). Semisolid Processing of Al/β-SiC Composites by Mechanical Stirring Casting and High Pressure Die Casting, Recent Researches in Metallurgical Engineering – From Extraction to Forming, Dr Mohammad Nusheh (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0356-1, InTech

07-12     Amir H. G. Isfahani and James M. Brethour, Simulating Thermal Stresses and Cooling Deformations, Die Casting Engineer, March 2012

06-12   Shuisheng Xie, Youfeng He and Xujun Mi, Study on Semi-solid Magnesium Alloys Slurry Preparation and Continuous Roll-casting Process, Magnesium Alloys – Design, Processing and Properties, ISBN: 978-953-307-520-4, InTech.

04-12 J. Spangenberg, N. Roussel, J.H. Hattel, H. Stang, J. Skocek, M.R. Geiker, Flow induced particle migration in fresh concrete: Theoretical frame, numerical simulations and experimental results on model fluids, Cement and Concrete Research, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2012.01.007, February 2012.

01-12   Lee, B., Baek, U., and Han, J., Optimization of Gating System Design for Die Casting of Thin Magnesium Alloy-Based Multi-Cavity LCD Housings, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Springer New York, Issn: 1059-9495, 10.1007/s11665-011-0111-1, Volume 1 / 1992 – Volume 21 / 2012. Available online at Springer Link.

104-11  Fu-Yuan Hsu and Huey Jiuan Lin, Foam Filters Used in Gravity Casting, Metall and Materi Trans B (2011) 42: 1110. doi:10.1007/s11663-011-9548-8.

99-11    Eduardo Trejo, Centrifugal Casting of an Aluminium Alloy, thesis: Doctor of Philosophy, Metallurgy and Materials School of Engineering University of Birmingham, October 2011. Full paper available upon request.

93-11  Olga Kononova, Andrejs Krasnikovs ,Videvuds Lapsa,Jurijs Kalinka and Angelina Galushchak, Internal Structure Formation in High Strength Fiber Concrete during Casting, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 59 2011

76-11  J. Hartmann, A. Trepper, and C. Körner, Aluminum Integral Foams with Near-Microcellular Structure, Advanced Engineering Materials 2011, Volume 13 (2011) No. 11, © Wiley-VCH

71-11  Fu-Yuan Hsu and Yao-Ming Yang Confluence Weld in an Aluminum Gravity Casting, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Available online 23 November 2011, ISSN 0924-0136, 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2011.11.006.

65-11     V.A. Chaikin, A.V. Chaikin, I.N.Volnov, A Study of the Process of Late Modification Using Simulation, in Zagotovitelnye Proizvodstva v Mashinostroenii, 10, 2011, 8-12. In Russian.

54-11  Ngadia Taha Niane and Jean-Pierre Michalet, Validation of Foundry Process for Aluminum Parts with FLOW-3D Software, Proceedings of the 2011 International Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting, 2011.

51-11    A. Reikher and H. Gerber, Calculation of the Die Cast parameters of the Thin Wall Aluminum Cast Part, 2011 Die Casting Congress & Tabletop, Columbus, OH, September 19-21, 2011

50-11   Y. Wang, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, and R.A. Miller, Runner design optimization based on CFD simulation for a die with multiple cavities, 2011 Die Casting Congress & Tabletop, Columbus, OH, September 19-21, 2011

48-11 A. Karwiński, W. Leśniewski, S. Pysz, P. Wieliczko, The technology of precision casting of titanium alloys by centrifugal process, Archives of Foundry Engineering, ISSN: 1897-3310), Volume 11, Issue 3/2011, 73-80, 2011.

46-11  Daniel Einsiedler, Entwicklung einer Simulationsmethodik zur Simulation von Strömungs- und Trocknungsvorgängen bei Kernfertigungsprozessen mittels CFD (Development of a simulation methodology for simulating flow and drying operations in core production processes using CFD), MSc thesis at Technical University of Aalen in Germany (Hochschule Aalen), 2011.

44-11  Bin Zhang and Craig Shaber, Aluminum Ingot Thermal Stress Development Modeling of the Wagstaff® EpsilonTM Rolling Ingot DC Casting System during the Start-up Phase, Materials Science Forum Vol. 693 (2011) pp 196-207, © 2011 Trans Tech Publications, July, 2011.

43-11 Vu Nguyen, Patrick Rohan, John Grandfield, Alex Levin, Kevin Naidoo, Kurt Oswald, Guillaume Girard, Ben Harker, and Joe Rea, Implementation of CASTfill low-dross pouring system for ingot casting, Materials Science Forum Vol. 693 (2011) pp 227-234, © 2011 Trans Tech Publications, July, 2011.

40-11  A. Starobin, D. Goettsch, M. Walker, D. Burch, Gas Pressure in Aluminum Block Water Jacket Cores, © 2011 American Foundry Society, International Journal of Metalcasting/Summer 2011

37-11 Ferencz Peti, Lucian Grama, Analyze of the Possible Causes of Porosity Type Defects in Aluminum High Pressure Diecast Parts, Scientific Bulletin of the Petru Maior University of Targu Mures, Vol. 8 (XXV) no. 1, 2011, ISSN 1841-9267

31-11  Johannes Hartmann, André Trepper, Carolin Körner, Aluminum Integral Foams with Near-Microcellular Structure, Advanced Engineering Materials, 13: n/a. doi: 10.1002/adem.201100035, June 2011.

27-11  A. Pari, Optimization of HPDC Process using Flow Simulation Case Studies, Die Casting Engineer, July 2011

26-11    A. Reikher, H. Gerber, Calculation of the Die Cast Parameters of the Thin Wall Aluminum Die Casting Part, Die Casting Engineer, July 2011

21-11 Thang Nguyen, Vu Nguyen, Morris Murray, Gary Savage, John Carrig, Modelling Die Filling in Ultra-Thin Aluminium Castings, Materials Science Forum (Volume 690), Light Metals Technology V, pp 107-111, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.690.107, June 2011.

19-11 Jon Spangenberg, Cem Celal Tutum, Jesper Henri Hattel, Nicolas Roussel, Metter Rica Geiker, Optimization of Casting Process Parameters for Homogeneous Aggregate Distribution in Self-Compacting Concrete: A Feasibility Study, © IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation, 2011, New Orleans, USA

16-11  A. Starobin, C.W. Hirt, H. Lang, and M. Todte, Core Drying Simulation and Validations, AFS Proceedings 2011, © American Foundry Society, Presented at the 115th Metalcasting Congress, Schaumburg, Illinois, April 2011.

15-11  J. J. Hernández-Ortega, R. Zamora, J. López, and F. Faura, Numerical Analysis of Air Pressure Effects on the Flow Pattern during the Filling of a Vertical Die Cavity, AIP Conf. Proc., Volume 1353, pp. 1238-1243, The 14th International Esaform Conference on Material Forming: Esaform 2011; doi:10.1063/1.3589686, May 2011. Available online.

10-11 Abbas A. Khalaf and Sumanth Shankar, Favorable Environment for Nondentric Morphology in Controlled Diffusion Solidification, DOI: 10.1007/s11661-011-0641-z, © The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2011, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, March 11, 2011.

08-11 Hai Peng Li, Chun Yong Liang, Li Hui Wang, Hong Shui Wang, Numerical Simulation of Casting Process for Gray Iron Butterfly Valve, Advanced Materials Research, 189-193, 260, February 2011.

04-11  C.W. Hirt, Predicting Core Shooting, Drying and Defect Development, Foundry Management & Technology, January 2011.

76-10  Zhizhong Sun, Henry Hu, Alfred Yu, Numerical Simulation and Experimental Study of Squeeze Casting Magnesium Alloy AM50, Magnesium Technology 2010, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition, February 14-18, 2010, Seattle, WA.

68-10  A. Reikher, H. Gerber, K.M. Pillai, T.-C. Jen, Natural Convection—An Overlooked Phenomenon of the Solidification Process, Die Casting Engineer, January 2010

54-10    Andrea Bernardoni, Andrea Borsi, Stefano Mascetti, Alessandro Incognito and Matteo Corrado, Fonderia Leonardo aveva ragione! L’enorme cavallo dedicato a Francesco Sforza era materialmente realizzabile, A&C – Analisis e Calcolo, Giugno 2010. In  Italian.

48-10  J. J. Hernández-Ortega, R. Zamora, J. Palacios, J. López and F. Faura, An Experimental and Numerical Study of Flow Patterns and Air Entrapment Phenomena During the Filling of a Vertical Die Cavity, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng., October 2010, Volume 132, Issue 5, 05101, doi:10.1115/1.4002535.

47-10  A.V. Chaikin, I.N. Volnov, and V.A. Chaikin, Development of Dispersible Mixed Inoculant Compositions Using the FLOW-3D Program, Liteinoe Proizvodstvo, October, 2010, in Russian.

42-10  H. Lakshmi, M.C. Vinay Kumar, Raghunath, P. Kumar, V. Ramanarayanan, K.S.S. Murthy, P. Dutta, Induction reheating of A356.2 aluminum alloy and thixocasting as automobile component, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 20(20101) s961-s967.

41-10  Pamela J. Waterman, Understanding Core-Gas Defects, Desktop Engineering, October 2010. Available online at Desktop Engineering. Also published in the Foundry Trade Journal, November 2010.

39-10  Liu Zheng, Jia Yingying, Mao Pingli, Li Yang, Wang Feng, Wang Hong, Zhou Le, Visualization of Die Casting Magnesium Alloy Steering Bracket, Special Casting & Nonferrous Alloys, ISSN: 1001-2249, CN: 42-1148/TG, 2010-04. In Chinese.

37-10  Morris Murray, Lars Feldager Hansen, and Carl Reinhardt, I Have Defects – Now What, Die Casting Engineer, September 2010

36-10  Stefano Mascetti, Using Flow Analysis Software to Optimize Piston Velocity for an HPDC Process, Die Casting Engineer, September 2010. Also available in Italian: Ottimizzare la velocita del pistone in pressofusione.  A & C, Analisi e Calcolo, Anno XII, n. 42, Gennaio 2011, ISSN 1128-3874.

32-10  Guan Hai Yan, Sheng Dun Zhao, Zheng Hui Sha, Parameters Optimization of Semisolid Diecasting Process for Air-Conditioner’s Triple Valve in HPb59-1 Alloy, Advanced Materials Research (Volumes 129 – 131), Vol. Material and Manufacturing Technology, pp. 936-941, DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.129-131.936, August 2010.

29-10 Zheng Peng, Xu Jun, Zhang Zhifeng, Bai Yuelong, and Shi Likai, Numerical Simulation of Filling of Rheo-diecasting A357 Aluminum Alloy, Special Casting & Nonferrous Alloys, DOI: CNKI:SUN:TZZZ.0.2010-01-024, 2010.

27-10 For an Aerospace Diecasting, Littler Uses Simulation to Reveal Defects, and Win a New Order, Foundry Management & Technology, July 2010

23-10 Michael R. Barkhudarov, Minimizing Air Entrainment, The Canadian Die Caster, June 2010

15-10 David H. Kirkwood, Michel Suery, Plato Kapranos, Helen V. Atkinson, and Kenneth P. Young, Semi-solid Processing of Alloys, 2010, XII, 172 p. 103 illus., 19 in color., Hardcover ISBN: 978-3-642-00705-7.

09-10  Shannon Wetzel, Fullfilling Da Vinci’s Dream, Modern Casting, April 2010.

08-10 B.I. Semenov, K.M. Kushtarov, Semi-solid Manufacturing of Castings, New Industrial Technologies, Publication of Moscow State Technical University n.a. N.E. Bauman, 2009 (in Russian)

07-10 Carl Reilly, Development Of Quantitative Casting Quality Assessment Criteria Using Process Modelling, thesis: The University of Birmingham, March 2010 (Available upon request)

06-10 A. Pari, Optimization of HPDC Process using Flow Simulation – Case Studies, CastExpo ’10, NADCA, Orlando, Florida, March 2010

05-10 M.C. Carter, S. Palit, and M. Littler, Characterizing Flow Losses Occurring in Air Vents and Ejector Pins in High Pressure Die Castings, CastExpo ’10, NADCA, Orlando, Florida, March 2010

04-10 Pamela Waterman, Simulating Porosity Factors, Foundry Management Technology, March 2010, Article available at Foundry Management Technology

03-10 C. Reilly, M.R. Jolly, N.R. Green, JC Gebelin, Assessment of Casting Filling by Modeling Surface Entrainment Events Using CFD, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition (Jim Evans Honorary Symposium), Seattle, Washington, USA, February 14-18, 2010

02-10 P. Väyrynen, S. Wang, J. Laine and S.Louhenkilpi, Control of Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Inclusions in Continuous Casting – CFD and Neural Network Studies, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition (Jim Evans Honorary Symposium), Seattle, Washington, USA, February 14-18, 2010

60-09   Somlak Wannarumon, and Marco Actis Grande, Comparisons of Computer Fluid Dynamic Software Programs applied to Jewelry Investment Casting Process, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 55 2009.

59-09   Marco Actis Grande and Somlak Wannarumon, Numerical Simulation of Investment Casting of Gold Jewelry: Experiments and Validations, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol:3 2009-07-24

56-09  Jozef Kasala, Ondrej Híreš, Rudolf Pernis, Start-up Phase Modeling of Semi Continuous Casting Process of Brass Billets, Metal 2009, 19.-21.5.2009

51-09  In-Ting Hong, Huan-Chien Tung, Chun-Hao Chiu and Hung-Shang Huang, Effect of Casting Parameters on Microstructure and Casting Quality of Si-Al Alloy for Vacuum Sputtering, China Steel Technical Report, No. 22, pp. 33-40, 2009.

42-09  P. Väyrynen, S. Wang, S. Louhenkilpi and L. Holappa, Modeling and Removal of Inclusions in Continuous Casting, Materials Science & Technology 2009 Conference & Exhibition, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, October 25-29, 2009

41-09 O.Smirnov, P.Väyrynen, A.Kravchenko and S.Louhenkilpi, Modern Methods of Modeling Fluid Flow and Inclusions Motion in Tundish Bath – General View, Proceedings of Steelsim 2009 – 3rd International Conference on Simulation and Modelling of Metallurgical Processes in Steelmaking, Leoben, Austria, September 8-10, 2009

21-09 A. Pari, Case Studies – Optimization of HPDC Process Using Flow Simulation, Die Casting Engineer, July 2009

20-09 M. Sirvio, M. Wos, Casting directly from a computer model by using advanced simulation software, FLOW-3D Cast, Archives of Foundry Engineering Volume 9, Issue 1/2009, 79-82

19-09 Andrei Starobin, C.W. Hirt, D. Goettsch, A Model for Binder Gas Generation and Transport in Sand Cores and Molds, Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Solidification Processes XII, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Minerals Society), June 2009

11-09 Michael Barkhudarov, Minimizing Air Entrainment in a Shot Sleeve during Slow-Shot Stage, Die Casting Engineer (The North American Die Casting Association ISSN 0012-253X), May 2009

10-09 A. Reikher, H. Gerber, Application of One-Dimensional Numerical Simulation to Optimize Process Parameters of a Thin-Wall Casting in High Pressure Die Casting, Die Casting Engineer (The North American Die Casting Association ISSN 0012-253X), May 2009

7-09 Andrei Starobin, Simulation of Core Gas Evolution and Flow, presented at the North American Die Casting Association – 113th Metalcasting Congress, April 7-10, 2009, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

6-09 A.Pari, Optimization of HPDC PROCESS: Case Studies, North American Die Casting Association – 113th Metalcasting Congress, April 7-10, 2009, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

2-09 C. Reilly, N.R. Green and M.R. Jolly, Oxide Entrainment Structures in Horizontal Running Systems, TMS 2009, San Francisco, California, February 2009

30-08 I.N.Volnov, Computer Modeling of Casting of Pipe Fittings, © 2008, Pipe Fittings, 5 (38), 2008. Russian version

28-08 A.V.Chaikin, I.N.Volnov, V.A.Chaikin, Y.A.Ukhanov, N.R.Petrov, Analysis of the Efficiency of Alloy Modifiers Using Statistics and Modeling, © 2008, Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), October, 2008

27-08 P. Scarber, Jr., H. Littleton, Simulating Macro-Porosity in Aluminum Lost Foam Castings, American Foundry Society, © 2008, AFS Lost Foam Conference, Asheville, North Carolina, October, 2008

25-08 FMT Staff, Forecasting Core Gas Pressures with Computer Simulation, Foundry Management and Technology, October 28, 2008 © 2008 Penton Media, Inc. Online article

24-08 Core and Mold Gas Evolution, Foundry Management and Technology, January 24, 2008 (excerpted from the FM&T May 2007 issue) © 2008 Penton Media, Inc.

22-08 Mark Littler, Simulation Eliminates Die Casting Scrap, Modern Casting/September 2008

21-08 X. Chen, D. Penumadu, Permeability Measurement and Numerical Modeling for Refractory Porous Materials, AFS Transactions © 2008 American Foundry Society, CastExpo ’08, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

20-08 Rolf Krack, Using Solidification Simulations for Optimising Die Cooling Systems, FTJ July/August 2008

19-08 Mark Littler, Simulation Software Eliminates Die Casting Scrap, ECS Casting Innovations, July/August 2008

13-08 T. Yoshimura, K. Yano, T. Fukui, S. Yamamoto, S. Nishido, M. Watanabe and Y. Nemoto, Optimum Design of Die Casting Plunger Tip Considering Air Entrainment, Proceedings of 10th Asian Foundry Congress (AFC10), Nagoya, Japan, May 2008

08-08 Stephen Instone, Andreas Buchholz and Gerd-Ulrich Gruen, Inclusion Transport Phenomena in Casting Furnaces, Light Metals 2008, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2008

07-08 P. Scarber, Jr., H. Littleton, Simulating Macro-Porosity in Aluminum Lost Foam Casting, AFS Transactions 2008 © American Foundry Society, CastExpo ’08, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

06-08 A. Reikher, H. Gerber and A. Starobin, Multi-Stage Plunger Deceleration System, CastExpo ’08, NADCA, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

05-08 Amol Palekar, Andrei Starobin, Alexander Reikher, Die-casting end-of-fill and drop forge viscometer flow transients examined with a coupled-motion numerical model, 68th World Foundry Congress, Chennai, India, February 2008

03-08 Petri J. Väyrynen, Sami K. Vapalahti and Seppo J. Louhenkilpi, On Validation of Mathematical Fluid Flow Models for Simulation of Tundish Water Models and Industrial Examples, AISTech 2008, May 2008

53-07   A. Kermanpur, Sh. Mahmoudi and A. Hajipour, Three-dimensional Numerical Simulation of Metal Flow and Solidification in the Multi-cavity Casting Moulds of Automotive Components, International Journal of Iron & Steel Society of Iran, Article 2, Volume 4, Issue 1, Summer and Autumn 2007, pages 8-15.

36-07 Duque Mesa A. F., Herrera J., Cruz L.J., Fernández G.P. y Martínez H.V., Caracterización Defectológica de Piezas Fundida por Lost Foam Casting Mediante Simulación Numérica, 8° Congreso Iberoamericano de Ingenieria Mecanica, Cusco, Peru, 23 al 25 de Octubre de 2007 (in Spanish)

27-07 A.Y. Korotchenko, A.M. Zarubin, I.A.Korotchenko, Modeling of High Pressure Die Casting Filling, Russian Foundryman, December 2007, pp 15-19. (in Russian)

26-07 I.N. Volnov, Modeling of Casting Processes with Variable Geometry, Russian Foundryman, November 2007, pp 27-30. (in Russian)

16-07 P. Väyrynen, S. Vapalahti, S. Louhenkilpi, L. Chatburn, M. Clark, T. Wagner, Tundish Flow Model Tuning and Validation – Steady State and Transient Casting Situations, STEELSIM 2007, Graz/Seggau, Austria, September 12-14 2007

11-07 Marco Actis Grande, Computer Simulation of the Investment Casting Process – Widening of the Filling Step, Santa Fe Symposium on Jewelry Manufacturing Technology, May 2007

09-07 Alexandre Reikher and Michael Barkhudarov, Casting: An Analytical Approach, Springer, 1st edition, August 2007, Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-84628-849-4. U.S. Order Form; Europe Order Form.

07-07 I.N. Volnov, Casting Modeling Systems – Current State, Problems and Perspectives, (in Russian), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), June 2007

05-07 A.N. Turchin, D.G. Eskin, and L. Katgerman, Solidification under Forced-Flow Conditions in a Shallow Cavity, DOI: 10.1007/s1161-007-9183-9, © The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2007

04-07 A.N. Turchin, M. Zuijderwijk, J. Pool, D.G. Eskin, and L. Katgerman, Feathery grain growth during solidification under forced flow conditions, © Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1016/j.actamat.2007.02.030, April 2007

03-07 S. Kuyucak, Sponsored Research – Clean Steel Casting Production—Evaluation of Laboratory Castings, Transactions of the American Foundry Society, Volume 115, 111th Metalcasting Congress, May 2007

02-07 Fu-Yuan Hsu, Mark R. Jolly and John Campbell, The Design of L-Shaped Runners for Gravity Casting, Shape Casting: 2nd International Symposium, Edited by Paul N. Crepeau, Murat Tiryakioðlu and John Campbell, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), Orlando, FL, Feb 2007

30-06 X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, Simulation of EPS foam decomposition in the lost foam casting process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 182 (2007) 333–342, © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

25-06 Michael Barkhudarov and Gengsheng Wei, Modeling Casting on the Move, Modern Casting, August 2006; Modeling of Casting Processes with Variable Geometry, Russian Foundryman, December 2007, pp 10-15. (in Russian)

24-06 P. Scarber, Jr. and C.E. Bates, Simulation of Core Gas Production During Mold Fill, © 2006 American Foundry Society

7-06 M.Y.Smirnov, Y.V.Golenkov, Manufacturing of Cast Iron Bath Tubs Castings using Vacuum-Process in Russia, Russia’s Foundryman, July 2006. In Russian.

6-06 M. Barkhudarov, and G. Wei, Modeling of the Coupled Motion of Rigid Bodies in Liquid Metal, Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes – XI, May 28 – June 2, 2006, Opio, France, eds. Ch.-A. Gandin and M. Bellet, pp 71-78, 2006.

2-06 J.-C. Gebelin, M.R. Jolly and F.-Y. Hsu, ‘Designing-in’ Controlled Filling Using Numerical Simulation for Gravity Sand Casting of Aluminium Alloys, Int. J. Cast Met. Res., 2006, Vol.19 No.1

1-06 Michael Barkhudarov, Using Simulation to Control Microporosity Reduces Die Iterations, Die Casting Engineer, January 2006, pp. 52-54

30-05 H. Xue, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, R.A. Miller, Modeling Dynamic Cavity Pressure and Impact Spike in Die Casting, Cast Expo ’05, April 16-19, 2005

22-05 Blas Melissari & Stavros A. Argyropoulous, Measurement of Magnitude and Direction of Velocity in High-Temperature Liquid Metals; Part I, Mathematical Modeling, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Volume 36B, October 2005, pp. 691-700

21-05 M.R. Jolly, State of the Art Review of Use of Modeling Software for Casting, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 337-346

20-05 J-C Gebelin, M.R. Jolly & F-Y Hsu, ‘Designing-in’ Controlled Filling Using Numerical Simulation for Gravity Sand Casting of Aluminium Alloys, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 355-364

19-05 F-Y Hsu, M.R. Jolly & J Campbell, Vortex Gate Design for Gravity Castings, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 73-82

18-05 M.R. Jolly, Modelling the Investment Casting Process: Problems and Successes, Japanese Foundry Society, JFS, Tokyo, Sept. 2005

13-05 Xiaogang Yang, Xiaobing Huang, Xiaojun Dai, John Campbell and Joe Tatler, Numerical Modelling of the Entrainment of Oxide Film Defects in Filling of Aluminium Alloy Castings, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 17 (6), 2004, 321-331

10-05 Carlos Evaristo Esparza, Martha P. Guerro-Mata, Roger Z. Ríos-Mercado, Optimal Design of Gating Systems by Gradient Search Methods, Computational Materials Science, October 2005

6-05 Birgit Hummler-Schaufler, Fritz Hirning, Jurgen Schaufler, A World First for Hatz Diesel and Schaufler Tooling, Die Casting Engineer, May 2005, pp. 18-21

4-05 Rolf Krack, The W35 Topic—A World First, Die Casting World, March 2005, pp. 16-17

3-05 Joerg Frei, Casting Simulations Speed Up Development, Die Casting World, March 2005, p. 14

2-05 David Goettsch and Michael Barkhudarov, Analysis and Optimization of the Transient Stage of Stopper-Rod Pour, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 2005

36-04  Ik Min Park, Il Dong Choi, Yong Ho Park, Development of Light-Weight Al Scroll Compressor for Car Air Conditioner, Materials Science Forum, Designing, Processing and Properties of Advanced Engineering Materials, 449-452, 149, March 2004.

32-04 D.H. Kirkwood and P.J Ward, Numerical Modelling of Semi-Solid Flow under Processing Conditions, steel research int. 75 (2004), No. 8/9

30-04 Haijing Mao, A Numerical Study of Externally Solidified Products in the Cold Chamber Die Casting Process, thesis: The Ohio State University, 2004 (Available upon request)

28-04 Z. Cao, Z. Yang, and X.L. Chen, Three-Dimensional Simulation of Transient GMA Weld Pool with Free Surface, Supplement to the Welding Journal, June 2004.

23-04 State of the Art Use of Computational Modelling in the Foundry Industry, 3rd International Conference Computational Modelling of Materials III, Sicily, Italy, June 2004, Advances in Science and Technology,  Eds P. Vincenzini & A Lami, Techna Group Srl, Italy, ISBN: 88-86538-46-4, Part B, pp 479-490

22-04 Jerry Fireman, Computer Simulation Helps Reduce Scrap, Die Casting Engineer, May 2004, pp. 46-49

21-04 Joerg Frei, Simulation—A Safe and Quick Way to Good Components, Aluminium World, Volume 3, Issue 2, pp. 42-43

20-04 J.-C. Gebelin, M.R. Jolly, A. M. Cendrowicz, J. Cirre and S. Blackburn, Simulation of Die Filling for the Wax Injection Process – Part II Numerical Simulation, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Volume 35B, August 2004

14-04 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov, Charles H. Sherwin, and Ruel A. Overfelt, Hot Distortion Studies In Phenolic Urethane Cold Box System, American Foundry Society, 108th Casting Congress, June 12-15, 2004, Rosemont, IL, USA

13-04 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov and Ruel A. Overfelt, First V-Process Casting of Magnesium, American Foundry Society, 108th Casting Congress, June 12-15, 2004, Rosemont, IL, USA

5-04 C. Schlumpberger & B. Hummler-Schaufler, Produktentwicklung auf hohem Niveau (Product Development on a High Level), Druckguss Praxis, January 2004, pp 39-42 (in German).

3-04 Charles Bates, Dealing with Defects, Foundry Management and Technology, February 2004, pp 23-25

1-04 Laihua Wang, Thang Nguyen, Gary Savage and Cameron Davidson, Thermal and Flow Modeling of Ladling and Injection in High Pressure Die Casting Process, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, vol. 16 No 4 2003, pp 409-417

2-03 J-C Gebelin, AM Cendrowicz, MR Jolly, Modeling of the Wax Injection Process for the Investment Casting Process – Prediction of Defects, presented at the Third International Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Minerals and Process Industries, December 10-12, 2003, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 415-420

29-03 C. W. Hirt, Modeling Shrinkage Induced Micro-porosity, Flow Science Technical Note (FSI-03-TN66)

28-03 Thixoforming at the University of Sheffield, Diecasting World, September 2003, pp 11-12

26-03 William Walkington, Gas Porosity-A Guide to Correcting the Problems, NADCA Publication: 516

22-03 G F Yao, C W Hirt, and M Barkhudarov, Development of a Numerical Approach for Simulation of Sand Blowing and Core Formation, in Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Process-X”, Ed. By Stefanescu et al pp. 633-639, 2003

21-03 E F Brush Jr, S P Midson, W G Walkington, D T Peters, J G Cowie, Porosity Control in Copper Rotor Die Castings, NADCA Indianapolis Convention Center, Indianapolis, IN September 15-18, 2003, T03-046

12-03 J-C Gebelin & M.R. Jolly, Modeling Filters in Light Alloy Casting Processes,  Trans AFS, 2002, 110, pp. 109-120

11-03 M.R. Jolly, Casting Simulation – How Well Do Reality and Virtual Casting Match – A State of the Art Review, Intl. J. Cast Metals Research, 2002, 14, pp. 303-313

10-03 Gebelin., J-C and Jolly, M.R., Modeling of the Investment Casting Process, Journal of  Materials Processing Tech., Vol. 135/2-3, pp. 291 – 300

9-03 Cox, M, Harding, R.A. and Campbell, J., Optimised Running System Design for Bottom Filled Aluminium Alloy 2L99 Investment Castings, J. Mat. Sci. Tech., May 2003, Vol. 19, pp. 613-625

8-03 Von Alexander Schrey and Regina Reek, Numerische Simulation der Kernherstellung, (Numerical Simulation of Core Blowing), Giesserei, June 2003, pp. 64-68 (in German)

7-03 J. Zuidema Jr., L Katgerman, Cyclone separation of particles in aluminum DC Casting, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 607-614

6-03 Jean-Christophe Gebelin and Mark Jolly, Numerical Modeling of Metal Flow Through Filters, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 431-438

5-03 N.W. Lai, W.D. Griffiths and J. Campbell, Modelling of the Potential for Oxide Film Entrainment in Light Metal Alloy Castings, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 415-422

21-02 Boris Lukezic, Case History: Process Modeling Solves Die Design Problems, Modern Casting, February 2003, P 59

20-02 C.W. Hirt and M.R. Barkhudarov, Predicting Defects in Lost Foam Castings, Modern Casting, December 2002, pp 31-33

19-02 Mark Jolly, Mike Cox, Ric Harding, Bill Griffiths and John Campbell, Quiescent Filling Applied to Investment Castings, Modern Casting, December 2002 pp. 36-38

18-02 Simulation Helps Overcome Challenges of Thin Wall Magnesium Diecasting, Foundry Management and Technology, October 2002, pp 13-15

17-02 G Messmer, Simulation of a Thixoforging Process of Aluminum Alloys with FLOW-3D, Institute for Metal Forming Technology, University of Stuttgart

16-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Computer Simulation of Lost Foam Process, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 319-324

15-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Computer Simulation of Inclusion Tracking, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 341-346

14-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Advanced Simulation of the Flow and Heat Transfer of an Alternator Housing, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 219-228

8-02 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov, and Ruel A. Overfelt, Experimental and Numerical Study of Bonded Sand-Air Two-Phase Flow in PUA Process, Auburn University, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-091, Kansas City, MO

7-02 A Habibollah Zadeh, and J Campbell, Metal Flow Through a Filter System, University of Birmingham, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-020, Kansas City, MO

6-02 Phil Ward, and Helen Atkinson, Final Report for EPSRC Project: Modeling of Thixotropic Flow of Metal Alloys into a Die, GR/M17334/01, March 2002, University of Sheffield

5-02 S. I. Bakhtiyarov and R. A. Overfelt, Numerical and Experimental Study of Aluminum Casting in Vacuum-sealed Step Molding, Auburn University, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-050, Kansas City, MO

4-02 J. C. Gebelin and M. R. Jolly, Modelling Filters in Light Alloy Casting Processes, University of Birmingham, 2002 American Foundry Society AFS Transactions 02-079, Kansas City, MO

3-02 Mark Jolly, Mike Cox, Jean-Christophe Gebelin, Sam Jones, and Alex Cendrowicz, Fundamentals of Investment Casting (FOCAST), Modelling the Investment Casting Process, Some preliminary results from the UK Research Programme, IRC in Materials, University of Birmingham, UK, AFS2001

49-01   Hua Bai and Brian G. Thomas, Bubble formation during horizontal gas injection into downward-flowing liquid, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 1143-1159, 2001. doi.org/10.1007/s11663-001-0102-y

45-01 Jan Zuidema; Laurens Katgerman; Ivo J. Opstelten;Jan M. Rabenberg, Secondary Cooling in DC Casting: Modelling and Experimental Results, TMS 2001, New Orleans, Louisianna, February 11-15, 2001

43-01 James Andrew Yurko, Fluid Flow Behavior of Semi-Solid Aluminum at High Shear Rates,Ph.D. thesis; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2001. Abstract only; full thesis available at http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/8451 (for a fee).

33-01 Juang, S.H., CAE Application on Design of Die Casting Dies, 2001 Conference on CAE Technology and Application, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan, November 2001, (article in Chinese with English-language abstract)

32-01 Juang, S.H. and C. M. Wang, Effect of Feeding Geometry on Flow Characteristics of Magnesium Die Casting by Numerical Analysis, The Preceedings of 6th FADMA Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, July 2001, Chinese language with English abstract

26-01 C. W. Hirt., Predicting Defects in Lost Foam Castings, December 13, 2001

21-01 P. Scarber Jr., Using Liquid Free Surface Areas as a Predictor of Reoxidation Tendency in Metal Alloy Castings, presented at the Steel Founders’ Society of American, Technical and Operating Conference, October 2001

20-01 P. Scarber Jr., J. Griffin, and C. E. Bates, The Effect of Gating and Pouring Practice on Reoxidation of Steel Castings, presented at the Steel Founders’ Society of American, Technical and Operating Conference, October 2001

19-01 L. Wang, T. Nguyen, M. Murray, Simulation of Flow Pattern and Temperature Profile in the Shot Sleeve of a High Pressure Die Casting Process, CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, Presented by North American Die Casting Association, Oct 29-Nov 1, 2001, Cincinnati, To1-014

18-01 Rajiv Shivpuri, Venkatesh Sankararaman, Kaustubh Kulkarni, An Approach at Optimizing the Ingate Design for Reducing Filling and Shrinkage Defects, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, Presented by North American Die Casting Association, Oct 29-Nov 1, 2001, Cincinnati, TO1-052

5-01 Michael Barkhudarov, Simulation Helps Overcome Challenges of Thin Wall Magnesium Diecasting, Diecasting World, March 2001, pp. 5-6

2-01 J. Grindling, Customized CFD Codes to Simulate Casting of Thermosets in Full 3D, Electrical Manufacturing and Coil Winding 2000 Conference, October 31-November 2, 20

20-00 Richard Schuhmann, John Carrig, Thang Nguyen, Arne Dahle, Comparison of Water Analogue Modelling and Numerical Simulation Using Real-Time X-Ray Flow Data in Gravity Die Casting, Australian Die Casting Association Die Casting 2000 Conference, September 3-6, 2000, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

15-00 M. Sirvio, Vainola, J. Vartianinen, M. Vuorinen, J. Orkas, and S. Devenyi, Fluid Flow Analysis for Designing Gating of Aluminum Castings, Proc. NADCA Conf., Rosemont, IL, Nov 6-8, 1999

14-00 X. Yang, M. Jolly, and J. Campbell, Reduction of Surface Turbulence during Filling of Sand Castings Using a Vortex-flow Runner, Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August 2000

13-00 H. S. H. Lo and J. Campbell, The Modeling of Ceramic Foam Filters, Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August 2000

12-00 M. R. Jolly, H. S. H. Lo, M. Turan and J. Campbell, Use of Simulation Tools in the Practical Development of a Method for Manufacture of Cast Iron Camshafts,” Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August, 2000

14-99 J Koke, and M Modigell, Time-Dependent Rheological Properties of Semi-solid Metal Alloys, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Aachen University of Technology, Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials 3: 15-30, 1999

12-99 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, Schneider, Wolfgang, Ray, Steven, Marthinusen, Jan-Olaf, Recent Improvements in Ceramic Foam Filter Design by Coupled Heat and Fluid Flow Modeling, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1999, pp. 1041-1047

10-99 Bongcheol Park and Jerald R. Brevick, Computer Flow Modeling of Cavity Pre-fill Effects in High Pressure Die Casting, NADCA Proceedings, Cleveland T99-011, November, 1999

8-99 Brad Guthrie, Simulation Reduces Aluminum Die Casting Cost by Reducing Volume, Die Casting Engineer Magazine, September/October 1999, pp. 78-81

7-99 Fred L. Church, Virtual Reality Predicts Cast Metal Flow, Modern Metals, September, 1999, pp. 67F-J

19-98 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, & Schneider, Wolfgang, Numerical Modeling of Fluid Flow Phenomena in the Launder-integrated Tool Within Casting Unit Development, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1998, pp. 1175-1182

18-98 X. Yang & J. Campbell, Liquid Metal Flow in a Pouring Basin, Int. J. Cast Metals Res, 1998, 10, pp. 239-253

15-98 R. Van Tol, Mould Filling of Horizontal Thin-Wall Castings, Delft University Press, The Netherlands, 1998

14-98 J. Daughtery and K. A. Williams, Thermal Modeling of Mold Material Candidates for Copper Pressure Die Casting of the Induction Motor Rotor Structure, Proc. Int’l Workshop on Permanent Mold Casting of Copper-Based Alloys, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Oct. 15-16, 1998

10-98 C. W. Hirt, and M.R. Barkhudarov, Lost Foam Casting Simulation with Defect Prediction, Flow Science Inc, presented at Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VIII Conference, June 7-12, 1998, Catamaran Hotel, San Diego, California

9-98 M. R. Barkhudarov and C. W. Hirt, Tracking Defects, Flow Science Inc, presented at the 1st International Aluminum Casting Technology Symposium, 12-14 October 1998, Rosemont, IL

5-98 J. Righi, Computer Simulation Helps Eliminate Porosity, Die Casting Management Magazine, pp. 36-38, January 1998

3-98 P. Kapranos, M. R. Barkhudarov, D. H. Kirkwood, Modeling of Structural Breakdown during Rapid Compression of Semi-Solid Alloy Slugs, Dept. Engineering Materials, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, U.K. and Flow Science Inc, USA, Presented at the 5th International Conference Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, 23-25 June 1998

1-98 U. Jerichow, T. Altan, and P. R. Sahm, Semi Solid Metal Forming of Aluminum Alloys-The Effect of Process Variables Upon Material Flow, Cavity Fill and Mechanical Properties, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, published in Die Casting Engineer, p. 26, Jan/Feb 1998

8-97 Michael Barkhudarov, High Pressure Die Casting Simulation Using FLOW-3D, Die Casting Engineer, 1997

15-97 M. R. Barkhudarov, Advanced Simulation of the Flow and Heat Transfer Process in Simultaneous Engineering, Flow Science report, presented at the Casting 1997 – International ADI and Simulation Conference, Helsinki, Finland, May 28-30, 1997

14-97 M. Ranganathan and R. Shivpuri, Reducing Scrap and Increasing Die Life in Low Pressure Die Casting through Flow Simulation and Accelerated Testing, Dept. Welding and Systems Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, presented at 19th International Die Casting Congress & Exposition, November 3-6, 1997

13-97 J. Koke, Modellierung und Simulation der Fließeigenschaften teilerstarrter Metallegierungen, Livt Information, Institut für Verfahrenstechnik, RWTH Aachen, October 1997

10-97 J. P. Greene and J. O. Wilkes, Numerical Analysis of Injection Molding of Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics – Part 2 Fiber Orientation, Body-in-White Center, General Motors Corp. and Dept. Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 37, No. 6, June 1997

9-97 J. P. Greene and J. O. Wilkes, Numerical Analysis of Injection Molding of Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics. Part 1 – Injection Pressures and Flow, Manufacturing Center, General Motors Corp. and Dept. Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 37, No. 3, March 1997

8-97 H. Grazzini and D. Nesa, Thermophysical Properties, Casting Simulation and Experiments for a Stainless Steel, AT Systemes (Renault) report, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

7-97 R. Van Tol, L. Katgerman and H. E. A. Van den Akker, Horizontal Mould Filling of a Thin Wall Aluminum Casting, Laboratory of Materials report, Delft University, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

6-97 M. R. Barkhudarov, Is Fluid Flow Important for Predicting Solidification, Flow Science report, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

22-96 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich & Schneider, Wolfgang, 3-D Modeling of the Start-up Phase of DC Casting of Sheet Ingots, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1996, pp. 971-981

9-96 M. R. Barkhudarov and C. W. Hirt, Thixotropic Flow Effects under Conditions of Strong Shear, Flow Science report FSI96-00-2, to be presented at the “Materials Week ’96” TMS Conference, Cincinnati, OH, 7-10 October 1996

4-96 C. W. Hirt, A Computational Model for the Lost Foam Process, Flow Science final report, February 1996 (FSI-96-57-R2)

3-96 M. R. Barkhudarov, C. L. Bronisz, C. W. Hirt, Three-Dimensional Thixotropic Flow Model, Flow Science report, FSI-96-00-1, published in the proceedings of (pp. 110- 114) and presented at the 4th International Conference on Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, The University of Sheffield, 19-21 June 1996

1-96 M. R. Barkhudarov, J. Beech, K. Chang, and S. B. Chin, Numerical Simulation of Metal/Mould Interfacial Heat Transfer in Casting, Dept. Mech. & Process Engineering, Dept. Engineering Materials, University of Sheffield and Flow Science Inc, 9th Int. Symposium on Transport Phenomena in Thermal-Fluid Engineering, June 25-28, 1996, Singapore

11-95 Barkhudarov, M. R., Hirt, C.W., Casting Simulation Mold Filling and Solidification-Benchmark Calculations Using FLOW-3D, Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, pp 935-946

10-95 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, & Schneider, Wolfgang, Optimal Design of a Distribution Pan for Level Pour Casting, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1995, pp. 1061-1070

9-95 E. Masuda, I. Itoh, K. Haraguchi, Application of Mold Filling Simulation to Die Casting Processes, Honda Engineering Co., Ltd., Tochigi, Japan, presented at the Modelling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1995

6-95 K. Venkatesan, Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Process Parameters on the Erosive Wear of Die Casting Dies, presented for Ph.D. degree at Ohio State University, 1995

5-95 J. Righi, A. F. LaCamera, S. A. Jones, W. G. Truckner, T. N. Rouns, Integration of Experience and Simulation Based Understanding in the Die Design Process, Alcoa Technical Center, Alcoa Center, PA 15069, presented by the North American Die Casting Association, 1995

2-95 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Simulation and Comparison with Water Modeling Studies of the Inertia Dominated Cavity Filling in Die Casting, NUMIFORM, 1995

1-95 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Gate Velocity and Gate Size on the Quality of Die Casting Parts, NAMRC, 1995.

15-94 D. Liang, Y. Bayraktar, S. A. Moir, M. Barkhudarov, and H. Jones, Primary Silicon Segregation During Isothermal Holding of Hypereutectic AI-18.3%Si Alloy in the Freezing Range, Dept. of Engr. Materials, U. of Sheffield, Metals and Materials, February 1994

13-94 Deniece Korzekwa and Paul Dunn, A Combined Experimental and Modeling Approach to Uranium Casting, Materials Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, presented at the Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting, El Dorado Hotel, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1994

12-94 R. van Tol, H. E. A. van den Akker and L. Katgerman, CFD Study of the Mould Filling of a Horizontal Thin Wall Aluminum Casting, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, HTD-Vol. 284/AMD-Vol. 182, Transport Phenomena in Solidification, ASME 1994

11-94 M. R. Barkhudarov and K. A. Williams, Simulation of ‘Surface Turbulence’ Fluid Phenomena During the Mold Filling Phase of Gravity Castings, Flow Science Technical Note #41, November 1994 (FSI-94-TN41)

10-94 M. R. Barkhudarov and S. B. Chin, Stability of a Numerical Algorithm for Gas Bubble Modelling, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K., International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, Vol. 19, 415-437 (1994)

16-93 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Simulation of Die Cavity Filling in Die Castings and an Evaluation of Process Parameters on Die Wear, Dept. of Industrial Systems Engineering, Presented by: N.A. Die Casting Association, Cleveland, Ohio, October 18-21, 1993

15-93 K. Venkatesen and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Modeling of Filling and Solidification for Improved Quality of Die Casting: A Literature Survey (Chapters II and III), Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, Report C-93-07, August 1993, Ohio State University

1-93 P-E Persson, Computer Simulation of the Solidification of a Hub Carrier for the Volvo 800 Series, AB Volvo Technological Development, Metals Laboratory, Technical Report No. LM 500014E, Jan. 1993

13-92 D. R. Korzekwa, M. A. K. Lewis, Experimentation and Simulation of Gravity Fed Lead Castings, in proceedings of a TMS Symposium on Concurrent Engineering Approach to Materials Processing, S. N. Dwivedi, A. J. Paul and F. R. Dax, eds., TMS-AIME Warrendale, p. 155 (1992)

12-92 M. A. K. Lewis, Near-Net-Shaiconpe Casting Simulation and Experimentation, MST 1992 Review, Los Alamos National Laboratory

2-92 M. R. Barkhudarov, H. You, J. Beech, S. B. Chin, D. H. Kirkwood, Validation and Development of FLOW-3D for Casting, School of Materials, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, presented at the TMS/AIME Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, March 3, 1992

1-92 D. R. Korzekwa and L. A. Jacobson, Los Alamos National Laboratory and C.W. Hirt, Flow Science Inc, Modeling Planar Flow Casting with FLOW-3D, presented at the TMS/AIME Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, March 3, 1992

12-91 R. Shivpuri, M. Kuthirakulathu, and M. Mittal, Nonisothermal 3-D Finite Difference Simulation of Cavity Filling during the Die Casting Process, Dept. Industrial and Systems Engineering, Ohio State University, presented at the 1991 Winter Annual ASME Meeting, Atlanta, GA, Dec. 1-6, 1991

3-91 C. W. Hirt, A FLOW-3D Study of the Importance of Fluid Momentum in Mold Filling, presented at the 18th Annual Automotive Materials Symposium, Michigan State University, Lansing, MI, May 1-2, 1991 (FSI-91-00-2)

11-90 N. Saluja, O.J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, On the Calculation of the Electromagnetic Force Field in the Circular Stirring of Metallic Melts, accepted in J. Appl. Physics, 1990

10-90 N. Saluja, O. J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, On the Calculation of the Electromagnetic Force Field in the Circular Stirring of Metallic Molds in Continuous Castings, presented at the 6th Iron and Steel Congress of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Nagoya, Japan, October 1990

9-90 N. Saluja, O. J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, Fluid Flow in Phenomena in the Electromagnetic Stirring of Continuous Casting Systems, Part I. The Behavior of a Cylindrically Shaped, Laboratory Scale Installation, accepted for publication in Steel Research, 1990

8-89 C. W. Hirt, Gravity-Fed Casting, Flow Science Technical Note #20, July 1989 (FSI-89-TN20)

6-89 E. W. M. Hansen and F. Syvertsen, Numerical Simulation of Flow Behaviour in Moldfilling for Casting Analysis, SINTEF-Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Norway, Report No. STS20 A89001, June 1989

1-88 C. W. Hirt and R. P. Harper, Modeling Tests for Casting Processes, Flow Science report, Jan. 1988 (FSI-88-38-01)

2-87 C. W. Hirt, Addition of a Solidification/Melting Model to FLOW-3D, Flow Science report, April 1987 (FSI-87-33-1)

Lost Foam Casting Workspace, 소실모형주조

Lost Foam Casting Workspace Highlights, 소실모형주조

  • 최첨단 Foam 잔여물 추적
  • 진보된 Foam 증발 및 금속 유동 모델링
  • 응고, 다공성 및 표면 결함 분석

Workspace Overview

Lost Foam Casting Workspace(소실모형주조) 는 Lost Foam Casting에 필요한 충진, 응고 및 냉각 하위 프로세스를 시뮬레이션하는 모든 도구를 제공합니다. 각 하위 프로세스는 해석 엔지니어가 사용하기 쉬운 인터페이스를 제공하도록 맞춤화된 템플릿 디자인을 기반으로합니다.

Lost Foam Casting 의 결함은 충진 프로파일에서 추적할 수 있기 때문에  FLOW-3D  CAST 의 용탕유동 및 소실모형(foam)의 연소 시뮬레이션의 탁월한 정확도는 고품질의 Lost Foam Casting 주물을 생산하는 데 귀중한 통찰력을 제공합니다. 기포. 잔류물 형성과 같은 주입 결함은 최종 주조에서 정확하게 추적되고 처리됩니다.

Lost Foam Casting Workspace | FLOW-3D CAST
Lost Foam Residue Tracking – Filling Simulation | FLOW-3D CAST
Lost Foam Impeller Tree – Filling Simulation | FLOW-3D CAST
Lost Foam Residue Simulation | FLOW-3D CAST

PROCESSES MODELED

  • Filling
  • Solidification
  • Cooling

FLEXIBLE MESHING

  • Structured meshing for fast, easy generation
  • Multi-block meshing for localized accuracy control
  • Foam-conforming meshes for memory optimization

MOLD MODELING

  • Ceramic filters
  • Inserts – standard and porous
  • Air vents
  • Chills
  • Insulating and exothermic sleeves
  • Moving ladles and stoppers

ADVANCED SOLIDIFICATION

  • Chemistry-based solidification
  • Dimensionless Niyama criteria
  • Cooling rates, SDAS, grain size mechanical properties

FILLING ACCURACY

  • Foam/melt interface tracking
  • Gas/bubble entrapment
  • Automatic melt flow drag calculation in filters

DEFECT PREDICTION

  • Foam residue defect tracking
  • Cold shuts
  • Porosity prediction
  • Shrinkage
  • Hot spots

DYNAMIC SIMULATION CONTROL

  • Probe-controlled pouring control

COMPLETE ANALYSIS PACKAGE

  • Animations with multi-viewports – 3D, 2D, history plots, volume rendering
  • Porosity analysis tool
  • Side-by-side simulation results comparison
  • Sensors for measuring melt temperature, solid fraction
  • Particle tracers
  • Batch post-processing
  • Report generation

Lost Foam Workspace | FLOW-3D CAST

Lost Foam의 장점

  • 공차가 엄격하고 복잡한 부품 모델링
    -표면 마감은 2.5~25㎛
    -크기는 파운드에서 톤까지 다양함
    -2.5mm의 최소 두께를 요구함
    -주철, 알루미늄 합금, 니켈 합금 및 강철과 같은 금속이 Lost Foam에 사용됨 (때로는 스테인리스 스틸 및 구리도 사용)
  • 코어가 필요 없음
    -코어는 바인더로 만들어지며 열분해로 인한 다공성 결함을 유발할 수 있음
  • 분리선이 필요 없음
    -분리선이 발생할 수 있음

결함 예측

  • 시뮬레이션은 결함 영역을 정확하게 식별하고 결함의 원인에 대한 통찰력을 제공할 수 있음
    -탕경
    -기포
    -접힘
    -기포 잔여물
    -초과 및 잔류 모멘텀

모델링 가정

  1. 모든 폴리머 패턴은 기체로 제거됨
  2. 코팅, 모래의 투과성, 패턴은 기체를 제거하는데 충분함
  3. 금속 속도는 열전달 및 기포 분해 특성에 의해 제어됨
  4. 금속과 패턴의 접점에서 금속의 온도는 패턴을 기체로 완전히 분해하고 금속과 패턴의 접점 뒤의 모래 손실로 인해 필요한 에너지의 결과

복잡하게 채워지는 동작

Lost Foam 작업 공간

  • 2000년 일반 모터 회사, AFS Lost Foam Consortium, 미국 에너지부 및 앨라배마 버밍엄 대학과 공동으로 개발
  • GM의 연구원은 Lost Foam casting 시뮬레이션과 실제 주조 시험과 연관시킴
  • 기포와 금속의 접정을 분석하여 금속의 흐름이 어떻게 결함을 발전시키고 주조의 품질에 영향을 미치는지 알아냄

GM “Box Cast” 검증

Lost Foam

Lost Foam

소실모형주조는 얇은 벽, 다른 미세한 크기, 조립이 적은 개스킷이 필요한 부품으로 매우 복잡한 그물 모양의 부품을 생산할 수 있기 때문입니다. 그리고 모래에서 바인더를 사용할 필요가 거의 없기 때문에, 사용된 모래는 재사용 할 수 있어 비용을 절약할 수 있습니다. 주조에 성공하려면 높은 수준의 컨트롤이 있어야 합니다. FLOW-3D CAST에는 주조 엔지니어가 이러한 어려운 문제를 해결하는 데 도움이 되도록 소실모형 주조 공정을 시뮬레이션 할 수 있는 특수 모델이 있습니다. 이러한 모델을 사용하여 사용자는 Lost foam 몰드의 주입과 이후 용탕의 응고를 시뮬레이션 할 수 있습니다. 더욱 중요한 것은, FLOW-3D CAST를 사용하면 고립된 폼과 관련하여 접힘이나 기타 결함이 발생할 가능성이 높은 곳을 예측할 수 있습니다.

Simulation of lost foam residue. Courtesy of Alchemcast.

 

Lost Foam Filling

주조 부품들의 많은 결함들은 용해된 금속이 금형 내부로 난류에 의해 흐르는 동안 갇힌 공기와 산화물들에 의해 발생합니다. 소실모형 주조 공정은 먼저 단단한 폼 패턴을 캐비티에 배치한 다음, 용탕 주입에 의해 연소되면서 결함을 줄입니다. 따라서 주입 속도는 발열 속도에 의해 제어되어, 금속 전면에서 원활한 흐름을 유지하는 데 도움이 됩니다. FLOW-3D CAST의 소실모형 주조 시뮬레이션은 주입 온도 및 압력, 게이트 크기 및 위치, 폼 물성과 같은 주입 프로세스 매개 변수를 설계하는 데 필요한 통찰력을 엔지니어에게 제공합니다.

Courtesy of GM.

 

Courtesy of BMW.

 

Modeling Solidification

응고 과정을 시뮬레이션하면 편석, 마이크로 및 매크로 기공과 같은 결함들을 예측하고 제어하는 데 도움이 되며, 이는 다시 주조 부품의 기계적 특성에 영향을 미칩니다. 아래의 시뮬레이션은 소실모형 주조 공정을 사용하여 알루미늄 V-6엔진 블록 주물을 응고시킨 것입니다. 이 비디오는 응고 후 수축공의 위치를 보여 줍니다.

 

Validations

Validations

금속 주조 설계 과정에서 FLOW-3D CAST의 사용은 회사의 비용 절감 방안을 제시하여 수익성을 개선할 수 있습니다. FLOW-3D CAST 는 엔지니어와 설계자에게 경험과 전문지식을 향상시킬 수 있는 강력한 도구가 될 수 있습니다. 보통 수익성은 비용 절감과 비용 회피에서 찾을 수 있습니다. 지금, 품질과 생산성 문제는 제품개발 단계에서 다양한 시뮬레이션 통해 짧은 공정시간, 낮은 비용으로 해결 할 수 있는 방안을 찾을 수 있습니다. 새로운 개발도구인 FLOW-3D CAST의 효율성은 생산이 시작되기 전에 문제를 해결할 수 있는 방안을 제시하여 생산성을 크게 개선할 수 있습니다.

Ladle Pour

샷 슬리브 공정을 최적화하는 것은 고품질 부품을 확보하는 데 필수적입니다. FLOW-3D CAST의 시뮬레이션 결과와 실제 사례의 비교를 통해, 시뮬레이션을 사용하여 엔지니어가 값 비싼 툴링을 제작하기 전에 설계를 개선하는 방법을 강조합니다. FLOW-3D CAST는 프로세스 전반에 걸쳐 유체의 움직임을 정확하게 포착할 수 있으므로, 엔지니어가 실제 레들 주입 공정에서 신속하게 파악할 수 있습니다. 시뮬레이션은 Nemak Poland Sp. z o.o로부터 제공받았습니다.

Gravity Casting

열전대 데이터를 기반으로 한 실제 충진 재구성과 비교 한 중력 주조 시뮬레이션. Courtesy of XC Engineering and Peugeot PSA.

Foundry: Simulating a Flow Fill Pattern


사형 주조 충진중의 X- 레이 검증

X -레이 결과와 FLOW-3D CAST 시뮬레이션 결과를 나란히 비교합니다. A356 알루미늄 합금으로 사형 주조의 3 차원 충진 색상은 금속의 압력을 나타냅니다. 시뮬레이션 결과는 수직 대칭 평면에 표시됩니다. Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, London, 1995.

HPDC: Flow Pattern


Short sleeve validation – 시뮬레이션 결과와 주조 부품, Littler Diecast Corporation의 예

Modeling Air Entrapment


디젤 엔진 용 오일 필터 하우징의 X-ray vs. FLOW-3D CAST 검증.

디젤 엔진 용 오일 필터 하우징의 X- 레이 검증, 380 다이캐스팅 합금. 결과는 혼입 된 공기의 비율로 표시됩니다. X- 레이의 상세한 영역은 최대 다공도 농도를 나타냅니다.

HPDC Filling


FLOW-3D 결과를 실제 부품과 비교하는 HPDC 캐스팅 검증

Short Shot Simulation


실제 주조 부품의 유효성 검사. 스냅 샷과 FLOW-3D CAST 시뮬레이션 결과. 왼쪽에서 오른쪽으로 : 변속기 하우징, 오일 팬 및 자동차 부품.

HPDC Air Entrapment Defects


Antrametal에 의한 주조 시뮬레이션 대 실험 결과의 성공적인 비교.

Antmetetal의 고객 검증은 FLOW-3D CAST의 Air Entrapment 모델을 사용하여 실험 결과와 시뮬레이션을 비교 한 결과를 보여줍니다. 세탁기 용 전동 모터의 앞 커버의 HPDC입니다. 공기 관련 결함은 이미지의 색상에 정 성적으로 표시됩니다. FLOW-3D CAST 내의 다른 수치 기능에 의해 포착 된 물리적 공기 포켓 또한 명확하게 표현됩니다.

Core Drying


시뮬레이션과 무기 코어의 건조 실험 사이의 BMW에 의한 비교.

Predicting Die Erosion


캐비테이션으로 인한 다이 침식 영역은 FLOW-3D CAST 결과를 실제 사례와 비교하여 올바르게 배치되었습니다.

Predicting Lost Foam Filling


Lost foam L850 블록 벌크 헤드 슬라이스에 대한 실시간 X-ray 및 FLOW-3D CAST 유동 시뮬레이션 결과의 비교. 시뮬레이션은 GM Powertrain의 예입니다.

Porosity Defects


Porosity due to entrained air

Predicting Shrinkage Porosity


A380 diesel engine block casting

 

Downloads
FLOW-3D Cast Brochure
Bibliography
Models
  • Cooling Channels
  • Core Gas
  • Thermal Stress Evolution
  • More Modeling Capabilities
Case Studies

Conference Proceedings

FLOW-3D CAST Suites

FLOW-3D CAST Suites

FLOW-3D CAST v5 comes in Suites of relevant casting processes: 

HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING SUITE

Process Workspace

High Pressure Die Casting

Features

Thermal Die Cycling
– Cooling/heating channels
– Spray cooling
Filling
– Shot sleeve with Plunger
– Shot motion
– Ladles, stoppers
– Venting efficiency
– PQ^2 analysis
– HPDC machine database
Solidification
– Squeeze pins
Cooling

PERMANENT MOLD CASTING SUITE

Process Workspaces

Permanent Mold Casting
Low Pressure Die Casting
Tilt Pour Casting

Features

Thermal Die Cycling
– Cooling/heating channels
Filling
– Tilt pouring
Solidification
– Squeeze pins
Cooling

SAND CASTING SUITE

Process Workspaces

Sand Casting
Low Pressure Sand Casting

Features

Filling
– Permeable molds
– Moisture evaporation in molds
– Gas generation in cores
– Ladle model
Solidification
– Exothermic sleeves
– Chills
– Cast iron solidification
Cooling

LOST FOAM CASTING SUITE

Process Workspaces

Lost Foam
Sand Casting
Low Pressure Sand Casting

Features

Filling
– Permeable molds
– Moisture evaporation in molds
– Gas generation in cores
– Ladle model
– Lost foam pattern evaporation models (Fast model and Full model)
– Lost foam defect prediction
Solidification
– Exothermic sleeves
– Chills
– Cast iron solidification
Cooling

 

ALL SUITES INCLUDE THESE CORE FEATURES:

Solver Engine

  • TruVOF – The most accurate filling simulation tool in the industry
  • Heat transfer and solidification
  • Shrinkage – Rapid Shrinkage model and Shrinkage with flow model
  • Temperature dependent properties
  • Multi-block meshing including conforming meshes
  • Turbulence models
  • Non-Newtonian viscosity (shear thinning/thickening, thixotropic)
  • Flow tracers
  • Active Simulation Control with Global Conditions
  • Surface tension model
  • Thermal stress analysis with warpage
  • General moving geometry w/6 DOF

FlowSight

  • Multi-case analysis
  • Porosity analysis tool

Defect Prediction Tools

  • Gas entrainment model
  • Thermal Modulus output
  • Hot Spot identification
  • Micro and macro porosity prediction
  • Surface defect prediction
  • Shrinkage
  • Cavitation and Cavitation Potential
  • Particle models (Inclusion modeling, collapsed bubble tracking)

User Conveniences

  • Process-oriented workspaces
  • Configurable Simulation Monitor
  • Metal and solid material databases
  • Heat transfer database
  • Filter database
  • Remote solving queues
  • Quick Analyze/Display tool

Predicting Defects Lform [Lost Form 결함 예측]

Introduction

There is increasing interest in the lost foam casting technique because of its ability to produce near-net-shaped components of high complexity. The idea is to first make a prototype of the part to be cast in foam. This is then used as a pattern that can be placed in a box and surrounded by sand. Finally, metal is poured such that it smoothly replaces the foam by melting and/or evaporating it.

The stiffness of the foam makes it possible to cast parts having thin walls or other fine-scale features, and since the foam does not have to be removed at the end of the casting process, parts can be made that require fewer gaskets to assemble. Furthermore, because the foam pattern holds the sand (mold) in place there is little need to use binders in the sand, which means that the sand doesn’t have to be disposed of and can be used again. All these features make the lost foam process highly attractive to manufacturers.

Unfortunately, one rarely gets a free lunch and lost foam casting is no exception. For the process to be successful there must be a high degree of process control. Foams must have the proper characteristics and be coated with just the right material, and pouring sprues and gates for delivering metal to the mold must be carefully arranged. Metal pour temperatures must be sufficiently high to prevent premature solidification. And finally, the filling pattern of a mold should be such that metal fronts do not merge in a way that traps liquefied foam material, which could cause internal defects in the cast part.

To help casters address some of these difficult problems the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program FLOW-3DÒ has been outfitted with special modeling capabilities to simulate the lost foam process. Using these models, it is possible to simulate the filling of a lost foam mold and the subsequent solidification of the metal. An extra feature in FLOW-3DÒ is the capability to predict where folds or other defects associated with trapped foam products are likely to be located.

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the usefulness and accuracy of lost foam predictions made with FLOW-3DÒ by presenting a direct comparison between experimental and computational results. The example chosen for this comparison is described in the next section. Subsequent sections present the comparisons with an emphasis on how the computational results can be used to understand why things happened as they did. This last point is most important, because it offers the user direct evidence and insight into how a casting could be improved.

 

[다운로드]

Predicting Defects Lform

Lost Foam Variable Pattern Density

Overview
Making foam patterns for use in the lost foam casting process is a difficult business. To make a pattern foam beads are blown into a mold containing discrete vent locations for the displaced air and steam. This makes the density of the packed beads difficult to control. Patterns typically show final density variations of ±20%. Much larger variations are not uncommon.
One goal of the Lost Foam Consortium is to evaluate techniques for improving the uniformity of patterns. A related goal is to determine to what extent density variations in patterns are significant with respect to the quality of the parts produced.
Recent real-time X-Ray observations of the metal filling process reported by Dr. Wayne Sun (Advanced Lost Foam Casting Technology-Phase V Meeting, June 20-21, 2001) revealed several interesting facts about the behavior of foam patterns. In particular, when the foam has a low degree of fusion metal is observed to move very fast into the foam (e.g., 4 to 5 times faster than in normal fusion foam). The advancement of the metal is typically in the form of fingers, which subsequently spread sideways causing the meeting of metal fronts that result in many fold defects. Furthermore, the location of the fingering is significantly affected by density variations in the foam pattern.
In contrast, when the foam patterns consisted of normal fusion foam, the metal front moved smoothly (i.e., no fingering) and considerably fewer fold defects occur. Also, the presence of density variations in the foam has little effect on the propagation of the metal fronts.
Based on these findings it was concluded that no attempt should be made to model low fusion foam because this in not likely to be choice for production work. Instead, we report here the development and testing of a model for adding a variable foam density to the FLOW-3D® software package from Flow Science, Inc.

물리 모델 소개

FLOW-3D 는 고도의 정확성이 필요한 항공, 자동차,  수자원 및 환경, 금속 산업분야의 세계적인 선진 기업에서 사용됩니다.

FLOW-3D의 광범위한 다중 물리 기능(multiphysics )은 자유 표면 흐름, 표면 장력, 열전달, 난류, 움직이는 물체, 단순 변형 고체, 전기 기계, 캐비테이션, 탄/소성, 점성, 가소성, 입자, 고체 연료, 연소 및 위상 변화를 포함합니다.
이러한 모델은 FLOW-3D를 사용하는 사용자들이 기술 및 과학의 광범위한 문제를 해결하도록 설계를 최적화하고 복잡한 프로세스 흐름에 대한 통찰력을 얻을 수 있도록 합니다.

flow-3d-multiphysics-model
Physics Models
Flow/Fluid Modes
  • Incompressible and Compressible Flows
  • Constant/Varying Density
  • Fluid Sources
  • Non-Inertial Frame Reference
  • Laminar/Turbulent Flow
  • Elastic Stresses
  • Electro-Mechanics
  • Heat Transfer
  • Particle Tracking
  • Surface Tension
  • Wall Contact Time
  • Phase Change

Materials Databases
  • Fluids Database
  • Solids Database

매우 정확한
시뮬레이션 결과

FAVOR™, 으로 알려진 특별한 메쉬 프로세스는 데카르트 구조의 단순함을 유지하면서 복잡한 형상을 효율적으로 구현합니다.

Optimized Setup
and Workflow

TruVOF 표면 추적 방법은 유동시뮬레이션을 위해 알려진 유체 체적을 사용하는 동안 가장 높은 정확도를 제공합니다.

FlowSight
Postprocessing

산업계에서 최고의 시각화 postprocessor인 FlowSight 는 사용자에게 2차원 및 3차원에 대한 심층 분석 기능을 제공합니다.

 

Coating Bibliography

아래는 코팅 참고 문헌의 기술 문서 모음입니다. 
이 모든 논문은 FLOW-3D  결과를 포함하고 있습니다. FLOW-3D를 사용하여 코팅 공정을 성공적으로 시뮬레이션  하는 방법에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오.

Coating Bibliography

2024년 11월 20일 Update

98-24 Fabiano I. Indicatti, Bo Cheng, Michael Rädler, Elisabeth Stammen, Klaus Dilger, Experimental and numerical investigation of the squeegee process during stencil printing of thick adhesive sealings, The Journal of Adhesion, 2024. doi.org/10.1080/00218464.2024.2356105

130-22   Md Didarul Islam, Himendra Perera, Benjamin Black, Matthew Phillips, Muh-Jang Chen, Greyson Hodges, Allyce Jackman, Yuxuan Liu, Chang-Jin Kim, Mohammed Zikry, Saad Khan, Yong Zhu, Mark Pankow, Jong Eun Ryu, Template-free scalable fabrication of linearly periodic microstructures by controlling ribbing defects phenomenon in forward roll coating for multifunctional applications, Advanced Materials Interfaces, 9.27; 2201237, 2022. doi.org/10.1002/admi.202201237

03-21   Delong Jia, Peng Yi, Yancong Liu, Jiawei Sun, Shengbo Yue, Qi Zhao, Effect of laser­ textured groove wall interface on molybdenum coating diffusion and metallurgical bonding, Surface and Coatings Technology, 405; 126561, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.126561

50-19     Peng Yi, Delong Jia, Xianghua Zhan, Pengun Xu, and Javad Mostaghimi, Coating solidification mechanism during plasma-sprayed filling the laser textured grooves, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 142, 2019. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118451

01-19   Jelena Dinic and Vivek Sharma, Computational analysis of self-similar capillary-driven thinning and pinch-off dynamics during dripping using the volume-of-fluid method, Physics of Fluids, Vol. 31, 2019. doi: 10.1063/1.5061715

85-18   Zia Jang, Oliver Litfin and Antonio Delgado, A semi-analytical approach for prediction of volume flow rate in nip-fed reverse roll coating process, Proceedings in Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Vol. 18, no. 1, Special Issue: 89th Annual Meeting of the International Association of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, 2018. doi: 10.1002/pamm.201800317

80-14   Hiroaki Koyama, Kazuhiro Fukada, Yoshitaka Murakami, Satoshi Inoue, and Tatsuya Shimoda, Investigation of Roll-to-Sheet Imprinting for the Fabrication of Thin-film Transistor Electrodes, IEICE TRAN, ELECTRON, VOL.E97-C, NO.11, November 2014

46-14   Isabell Vogeler, Andreas Olbers, Bettina Willinger and Antonio Delgado, Numerical investigation of the onset of air entrainment in forward roll coating, 17th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium September 7-10, 2014 San Diego, CA, USA

17-12  Chi-Feng Lin, Bo-Kai Wang, Carlos Tiu and Ta-Jo Liu, On the Pinning of Downstream Meniscus for Slot Die Coating, Advances in Polymer Technology, Vol. 00, No. 0, 1-9 (2012) © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Available online at Wiley.

01-11  Reid Chesterfield, Andrew Johnson, Charlie Lang, Matthew Stainer, and Jonathan Ziebarth, Solution-Coating Technology for AMOLED Displays, Information Display Magazine, 1/11 0362-0972/01/2011-024 © SID 2011.

61-09 Yi-Rong Chang, Chi-Feng Lin and Ta-Jo Liu, Start-up of slot die coating, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 49, pp. 1158-1167, 2009. doi:10.1002/pen.21360

26-06  James M. Brethour, 3-D transient simulation of viscoelastic coating flows, 13th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium, September 2006, Denver, Colorado

19-06  Ivosevic, M., Cairncross, R. A., and Knight, R., 3D Predictions of Thermally Sprayed Polymer Splats Modeling Particle Acceleration, Heating and Deformation on Impact with a Flat Substrate, Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer, 49, pp. 3285 – 3297, 2006

9-06  M. Ivosevic, R. A. Cairncross, R. Knight, T. E. Twardowski, V. Gupta, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA; J. A. Baldoni, Duke University, Durham, NC, Effect of Substrate Roughness on Splatting Behavior of HVOF Sprayed Polymer Particles Modeling and Experiments, International Thermal Spray Conference, Seattle, WA, May 2006.

26-05  Ivosevic, M., Cairncross, R. A., Knight, R., Impact Modeling of Thermally Sprayed Polymer Particles, Proc. International Thermal Spray Conference [ITSC-2005], Eds., DVS/IIW/ASM-TSS, Basel, Switzerland, May 2005.

11-05  Brethour, J., Simulation of Viscoelastic Coating Flows with a Volume-of-fluid Technique, in Proceedings of the 6th European Coating Symposium, Bradford, UK, 2005

1-05 C.W. Hirt, Electro-Hydrodynamics of Semi-Conductive Fluids: With Application to Electro-Spraying, Flow Science Technical Note #70, FSI-05-TN70

38-04 K.H. Ho and Y.Y. Zhao, Modelling thermal development of liquid metal flow on rotating disc in centrifugal atomisation, Materials Science and Engineering, A365, pp. 336-340, 2004. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2003.09.044

30-04  M. Ivosevic, R.A. Cairncross, and R. Knight, Impact Modeling of HVOF Sprayed Polymer Particles, Presented at the 12th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium, Rochester, New York, September 23-25, 2004

29-04  J.M. Brethour and C.W. Hirt, Stains Arising from Dried Liquid Drops, Presented at the 12th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium, Rochester, New York, September 23-25, 2004

20-03  James Brethour, Filling and Emptying of Gravure Cells–A CFD Analysis, Convertech Pacific October 2002, Vol. 10, No 4, p 34-37

4-03   M. Toivakka, Numerical Investigation of Droplet Impact Spreading in Spray Coating of Paper, In Proceedings of 2003 TAPPI 8th Advanced Coating Fundamentals Symposium, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, 2003

28-02  J.M. Brethour and H. Benkreira, Filling and Emptying of Gravure Cells—Experiment and CFD Comparison, 11th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium, September 23-25, 2002, Minneapolis, Minnesota

22-02  Hirt, C.W., and Brethour, J.M., Contact Line on Rough Surfaces with Application to Air Entrainment, Presented at the 11th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium, September 23-25, 2002, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Unpublished.

17-01  J. M. Brethour, C. W. Hirt, Moving Contact Lines on Rough Surfaces, 4th European Coating Symposium, 2001, Belgium

16-01  J. M. Brethour, Filling and Emptying of Gravure Cells–-A CFD Analysis, proceedings of the 4th European Coating Symposium 2001, October 1-4, 2001, Brussels, Belgium

26-00 Ronald H. Miller and Gary S. Strumolo, A Self-Consistent Transient Paint Simulation, Proceedings of IMEC2000: 2000 ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 2000, Orlando, Florida

6-99  C. W. Hirt, Direct Computation of Dynamic Contact Angles and Contact Lines, ECC99 Coating Conference, Erlangen, Germany (FSI-99-00-2), Sept. 1999

7-98 J. E. Richardson and Y. Becker, Three-Dimensional Simulation of Slot Coating Edge Effects, Flow Science Inc, and Polaroid Corporation, presented at the 9th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium, Newark, DE, May 18-20, 1998

6-98  C. W. Hirt and E. Choinski, Simulation of the Wet-Start Process in Slot Coating, Flow Science Inc, and Polaroid Corporation, presented at the 9th International Coating Science and Technology Symposium, Newark, DE, May 18-20, 1998

3-97  C. W. Hirt and J. E. Richardson of Flow Science Inc, and K.S. Chen, Sandia National Laboratory, Simulation of Transient and Three-Dimensional Coating Flows Using a Volume-of-Fluid Technique, presented at the 50th Annual Conference of the Society for Imaging and Science Technology, Boston, MA 18-23 May 1997

2-96 C. W. Hirt, K. S. Chen, Simulation of Slide-Coating Flows Using a Fixed Grid and a Volume-of-Fluid Front-Tracking Technique, presented a the 8th International Coating Process Science & Technology Symposium, February 25-29, 1996, New Orleans, LA

Metal Casting Bibliography

다음은 금속 주조 참고 문헌의 기술 문서 모음입니다. 
이 모든 논문은 FLOW-3D  CAST  결과를 포함하고 있습니다. FLOW-3D  CAST 를 사용하여 금속 주조 산업의 어플리케이션을 성공적으로 시뮬레이션  하는 방법에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오.

2024년 11월 20일 Update

93-24 Benedict Baumann, Andreas Kessler, Claudia Dommaschk, Gotthard Wolf , Influence of filter structure and casting system on filtration efficiency in aluminum mold casting, Multifunctional Ceramic Filter Systems for Metal Melt Filtration, Eds. C.G. Aneziris, H. Biermann, Springer Series in Materials Science, 337; 2024. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40930-1_28

93-24 Benedict Baumann, Andreas Kessler, Claudia Dommaschk, Gotthard Wolf , Influence of filter structure and casting system on filtration efficiency in aluminum mold casting, Multifunctional Ceramic Filter Systems for Metal Melt Filtration, Eds. C.G. Aneziris, H. Biermann, Springer Series in Materials Science, 337; 2024. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40930-1_28

87-24 Rahul Jayakumar, T.P.D. Rajan, Sivaraman Savithri, A GPU based accelerated solver for simulation of heat transfer during metal casting process, Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering, 32.5; 055013, 2024. doi.org/10.1088/1361-651X/ad4406

46-24 Masyrukan, Irwan Mawarda, Sunardi Wiyono, Bibit Sugito, Ummi Kultsum, Dessy Ade Pratiwi, Desi Gustiani, Nur Annisa Istiqamah, The effect of differences in in-gate diameter size on the structure and mechanical properties of aluminum (Al) castings in pipe products with a red sand mold, AIP Conference Proceedings, 2838.1; 2024. doi.org/10.1063/5.0185773

43-24 German Alberto Barragán De Los Rios, Silvio Andrés Salazar Martínez, Emigdio Mendoza Fandiño, Patricia Fernández-Morales, Numerical simulation of aluminum foams by space holder infiltration, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-024-01287-8

40-24 Bin Zhang, Gary P. Grealy, Thermomechanical modeling on AirSlip® billet DC casting of high-strength crack-prone aluminum alloys, Light Metals 2024, Eds. S. Wagstaff, pp. 1015-1025, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50308-5_128

35-24 Balaji Chandrakanth, Ved Prakash, Adwaita Maiti, Diya Mukherjee, Development of triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) inspired structured cast iron foams through casting route, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-023-01247-8

19-24   Diya Mukherjee, Himadri Roy, Balaji Chandrakanth, Nilrudra Mandal, Sudip Kumar Samanta, Manidipto Mukherjee, Enhancing properties of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy through microalloying and heat treatment, Materials Chemistry and Physics, 314; 128881, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2024.128881

46-24 Masyrukan, Irwan Mawarda, Sunardi Wiyono, Bibit Sugito, Ummi Kultsum, Dessy Ade Pratiwi, Desi Gustiani, Nur Annisa Istiqamah, The effect of differences in in-gate diameter size on the structure and mechanical properties of aluminum (Al) castings in pipe products with a red sand mold, AIP Conference Proceedings, 2838.1; 2024. doi.org/10.1063/5.0185773

43-24 German Alberto Barragán De Los Rios, Silvio Andrés Salazar Martínez, Emigdio Mendoza Fandiño, Patricia Fernández-Morales, Numerical simulation of aluminum foams by space holder infiltration, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-024-01287-8

40-24 Bin Zhang, Gary P. Grealy, Thermomechanical modeling on AirSlip® billet DC casting of high-strength crack-prone aluminum alloys, Light Metals 2024, Eds. S. Wagstaff, pp. 1015-1025, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50308-5_128

35-24 Balaji Chandrakanth, Ved Prakash, Adwaita Maiti, Diya Mukherjee, Development of triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) inspired structured cast iron foams through casting route, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2024. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-023-01247-8

19-24   Diya Mukherjee, Himadri Roy, Balaji Chandrakanth, Nilrudra Mandal, Sudip Kumar Samanta, Manidipto Mukherjee, Enhancing properties of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy through microalloying and heat treatment, Materials Chemistry and Physics, 314; 128881, 2024. doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2024.128881

181-23   Daichi Minamide, Ken’ichi Yano, Masahiro Sano, Takahiro Aoki, Overflow design system to decrease gas defects considering the direction of molten metal flow, 3rd International Conference on Electrical, Computer, Communications and Mechatronics Engineering (ICECCME), pp. 1-6, 2023. doi.org/10.1109/ICECCME57830.2023.10253413

102-23 Daichi Minamide, Ken’ichi Yano, Masahiro Sano, Takahiro Aoki, Automatic design of overflow system for preventing gas defects by considering the direction of molten metal flow, Computer-Aided Design, 163; 103586, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2023.103586

87-23 Prosenjit Das, Optimisation of melt pouring temperature and low superheat casting of Al-15Mg2Si-4.5Si composite, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 36.1-3; 2023. doi.org/10.1080/13640461.2023.2211895

60-23   Yuanhao Gu, Feng Wang, Jian Jiao, Zhi Wang, Le Zhou, Pingli Mao, Zheng Liu, Study on semisolid rheo-diecasting process, microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg-6Al-1Ca-0.5Sb alloy with high solid fraction, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-023-01001-0

48-23   Patricia Fernández‑Morales, Lauramaría Echeverrí, Emigdio Mendoza Fandiño, Alejandro Alberto Zuleta Gil, Replication casting and additive manufacturing for fabrication of cellular aluminum with periodic topology: optimization by CFD simulation, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 26; pp. 1789-1797, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11124-7

45-23   Daniel Martinez, Philip King, Santosh Reddy Sama, Jay Sim, Hakan Toykoc, Guha Manogharan, Effect of freezing range on reducing casting defects through 3D sand-printed mold designs, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-11112-x

38-23   Emanuele Pagone, Christopher Jones, John Forde, William Shaw, Mark Jolly, Konstantinos Salonitis, Defect minimization in vacuum-assisted plaster mould investment casting through simulation of high-value aluminium alloy components, TMS 2023: Light Metals, pp. 1078-1086, 2023.

33-23   Philip King, Guha Manogharan, Novel experimental method for metal flow analysis using open molds for sand casting, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-023-00966-2

32-23   Sujeet Kumar Gautam, Himadri Roy, Aditya Kumar Lohar, Sudip Kumar Samanta, Studies on mold filling behavior of Al–10.5Si–1.7Cu Al alloy during rheo pressure die casting system, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-023-00958-2

31-23   Anand Kumbhare, Prasenjit Biswas, Anil Bisen, Chandan Choudary, Investigation of effect of the rheological parameters on the flow behavior of ADC12 Al alloy in rheo-pressure die casting, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2023. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-023-00962-6

24-23   Natalia Raźny, Anna Dmitruk, Maria Serdechnova, Carsten Blawert, Joanna Ludwiczak, Krzysztof Naplocha, The performance of thermally conductive tree-like cast aluminum structures in PCM-based storage units, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 142; 106606, 2023. doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2022.106606

172-22 J. Yokesh Kumar, S. Gopi, K.S. Amirthagadeswaran, Redesigning and numerical simulation of gating system to reduce cold shut defect in submersible pump part castings, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering, 2022. doi.org/10.1177/0954408922114218

125-22   Maximilian Erber, Tobias Rosnitschek, Christoph Hartmann, Bettina Alber-Laukant, Stephan Tremmel, Wolfram Volk, Geometry-based assurance of directional solidification for complex topology-optimized castings using the medial axis transform, Computer-Aided Design, 152; 103394, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2022.103394

74-22    Vasilios Fourlakidis, Ilia Belov, Attila Diószeg, Experimental model of the pearlite interlamellar spacing in lamellar graphite iron, Tecnologia em Metalurgia, Materiais e Mineração, 19; e2634, 2022. doi.org/10.4322/2176-1523.20222634

71-22   M. G. Mahmoud, Amr Abdelghany, Serag Salem, Numerical simulation of door lock plates castings produced by high pressure die casting process, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-022-00797-7

70-22   Andreas Schilling, Daniel Schmidt, Jakob Glück, Niklas Schwenke, Husam Sharabi, Martin Fehlbier, About the impact on gravity cast salt cores in high pressure die casting and rheocasting, Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, 119; 102585, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.simpat.2022.102585

52-22   Manthan Dhisale, Jitesh Vasavada, Asim Tewari, An approach to optimize cooling channel parameters of low pressure die casting process for reducing shrinkage porosity in aluminium alloy wheels, Materials Today: Proceedings, in print, 2022. doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.478

44-22   Zihan Lang, Feng Wang, Wei Wang, Zhi Wang, Le Zhou, Pingli Mao, Zheng Liu, Numerical simulation and experimental study on semi-solid forming process of 319s aluminum alloy test bar, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-022-00788-8

32-22   Elisa Fracchia, Federico Simone Gobber, Claudio Mus, Raul Pirovino, Mario Russo, The local squeeze technology for challenging aluminium HPDC automotive components, Light Metals, pp. 772-778, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92529-1_102

141-21   O. Ayer, O. Kaya, Mould design optimisation by FEM, Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2130; 012021, 2021. doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2130/1/012021

117-21   I. Rajkumar, N. Rajini, T. Ram Prabhu, Sikiru O. Ismail, Suchart Siengchin, Faruq Mohammad, Hamad A. Al-Lohedan , Applicability of angular orientations of gating designs to quality of sand casting components using two-cavity mould set-up, Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s12666-021-02434-z

106-21   M. Ahmed, E. Riedel, M. Kovalko, A. Volochko, R. Bähr, A. Nofal, Ultrafine ductile and austempered ductile irons by solidification in ultrasonic field, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-021-00683-8

97-21   J. Glueck, A. Schilling, N. Schwenke, A. Fros, M.Fehlbier, Efficiency and agility of a liquid CO2 cooling system for molten metal systems, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 28; 101485, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2021.101485

82-21   Giulia Scampone, Raul Pirovano, Stefano Mascetti, Giulio Timelli, Experimental and numerical investigations of oxide-related defects in Al alloy gravity die castings, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 117; pp. 1765-1780, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07680-5

74-21   Shuyang Ren, Feng Wang, Jingying Sun, Zheng Liu, Pingli Mao, Gating system design based on numerical simulation and production experiment verification of aluminum alloy bracket fabricated by semi-solid rheo-die casting process, International Journal of Metalcasting, 2021. doi.org/10.1007/s40962-021-00648-x

69-21   Ozen Gursoy, Murat Colak, Kazim Tur, Derya Dispinar, Characterization of properties of Vanadium, Boron and Strontium addition on HPDC of A360 alloy, Materials Chemistry and Physics, 271; 124931, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2021.124931

54-21   K. Munpakdee, P. Ninpetch, S. Otarawanna, R. Canyook, P. Kowitwarangkul, Effect of feed sprue size on porosity defects in Platinum 950 centrifugal investment casting via numerical modelling, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 11th TSME-International Conference on Mechanical Engineering, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand, December 1-4, 2020, 1137; 012021, 2021. doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1137/1/012021/

44-21   Yunxiang Zhang, Haidong Zhao, Fei Liu, Microstructure characteristics and mechanical properties improvement of gravity cast Al-7Si-0.4Mg alloys with Zr additions, Materials Characterization, 176; 111117, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2021.111117

05-21   Heqian Song, Lunyong Zhang, Fuyang Cao, Xu Gu, Jianfei Sun, Oxide bifilm defects in aluminum alloy castings, Materials Letters, 285; 129089, 2021. doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2020.129089

127-20   Eric Riedel, Niklas Bergedieck, Stefan Scharf, CFD simulation based investigation of cavitation cynamics during high intensity ultrasonic treatment of A356, Metals, 10.11; 1529, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10111529

86-20       Malte Leonhard, Matthias Todte, Jörg Schäfer, Realistic simulation of the combustion of exothermic feeders, Modern Casting, August 2020; pp. 35-40, 2020. (See also 58-19)

52-20       Mingfan Qi, Yonglin Kang, Jingyuan Li, Zhumabieke Wulabieke, Yuzhao Xu, Yangde Li, Aisen Liu, Junchen Chen, Microstructures refinement and mechanical properties enhancement of aluminum and magnesium alloys by combining distributary-confluence channel process for semisolid slurry preparation with high pressure die-casting, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 285; 116800, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116800

46-20       Yasushi Iwata, Shuxin Dong, Yoshio Sugiyama, Jun Yaokawa, Melt permeability changes during solidification of aluminum alloys and application to feeding simulation for die castings, Materials Transactions, 61.7; pp. 1381-1386, 2020. doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.F-M2020822

45-20       Daniel Bernal, Xabier Chamorro, Iñaki Hurtado, Iñaki Madariaga, Effect of boron content and cooling rate on the microstructure and boride formation of β-solidifying γ-TiAl TNM alloy, Metals, 10.5; 698, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10050698

33-20     Eric Riedel, Martin Liepe Stefan Scharf, Simulation of ultrasonic induced cavitation and acoustic streaming in liquid and solidifying aluminum, Metals, 10.4; 476, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10040476

20-20   Wu Yue, Li Zhuo and Lu Rong, Simulation and visual tester verification of solid propellant slurry vacuum plate casting, Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 2020. doi.org/10.1002/prep.201900411

17-20   C.A. Jones, M.R. Jolly, A.E.W. Jarfors and M. Irwin, An experimental characterization of thermophysical properties of a porous ceramic shell used in the investment casting process, Supplimental Proceedings, pp. 1095-1105, TMS 2020 149th Annual Meeting and Exhibition, San Diego, CA, February 23-27, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36296-6_102

12-20   Franz Josef Feikus, Paul Bernsteiner, Ricardo Fernández Gutiérrez and Michal Luszczak , Further development of electric motor housings, MTZ Worldwide, 81, pp. 38-43, 2020. doi.org/10.1007/s38313-019-0176-z

09-20   Mingfan Qi, Yonglin Kang, Yuzhao Xu, Zhumabieke Wulabieke and Jingyuan Li, A novel rheological high pressure die-casting process for preparing large thin-walled Al–Si–Fe–Mg–Sr alloy with high heat conductivity, high plasticity and medium strength, Materials Science and Engineering: A, 776, art. no. 139040, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.139040

07-20   Stefan Heugenhauser, Erhard Kaschnitz and Peter Schumacher, Development of an aluminum compound casting process – Experiments and numerical simulations, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 279, art. no. 116578, 2020. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.116578

05-20   Michail Papanikolaou, Emanuele Pagone, Mark Jolly and Konstantinos Salonitis, Numerical simulation and evaluation of Campbell running and gating systems, Metals, 10.1, art. no. 68, 2020. doi.org/10.3390/met10010068

102-19   Ferencz Peti and Gabriela Strnad, The effect of squeeze pin dimension and operational parameters on material homogeneity of aluminium high pressure die cast parts, Acta Marisiensis. Seria Technologica, 16.2, 2019. doi.org/0.2478/amset-2019-0010

94-19   E. Riedel, I. Horn, N. Stein, H. Stein, R. Bahr, and S. Scharf, Ultrasonic treatment: a clean technology that supports sustainability incasting processes, Procedia, 26th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Conference, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, May 7-9, 2019.

93-19   Adrian V. Catalina, Liping Xue, Charles A. Monroe, Robin D. Foley, and John A. Griffin, Modeling and Simulation of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AlSi- and AlCu-based Alloys, Transactions, 123rd Metalcasting Congress, Atlanta, GA, USA, April 27-30, 2019.

84-19   Arun Prabhakar, Michail Papanikolaou, Konstantinos Salonitis, and Mark Jolly, Sand casting of sheet lead: numerical simulation of metal flow and solidification, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, pp. 1-13, 2019. doi:10.1007/s00170-019-04522-3

72-19   Santosh Reddy Sama, Eric Macdonald, Robert Voigt, and Guha Manogharan, Measurement of metal velocity in sand casting during mold filling, Metals, 9:1079, 2019. doi:10.3390/met9101079

71-19   Sebastian Findeisen, Robin Van Der Auwera, Michael Heuser, and Franz-Josef Wöstmann, Gießtechnische Fertigung von E-Motorengehäusen mit interner Kühling (Casting production of electric motor housings with internal cooling), Geisserei, 106, pp. 72-78, 2019 (in German).

58-19     Von Malte Leonhard, Matthias Todte, and Jörg Schäffer, Realistic simulation of the combustion of exothermic feeders, Casting, No. 2, pp. 28-32, 2019. In English and German.

52-19     S. Lakkum and P. Kowitwarangkul, Numerical investigations on the effect of gas flow rate in the gas stirred ladle with dual plugs, International Conference on Materials Research and Innovation (ICMARI), Bangkok, Thailand, December 17-21, 2018. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 526, 2019. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/526/1/012028

47-19     Bing Zhou, Shuai Lu, Kaile Xu, Chun Xu, and Zhanyong Wang, Microstructure and simulation of semisolid aluminum alloy castings in the process of stirring integrated transfer-heat (SIT) with water cooling, International Journal of Metalcasting, Online edition, pp. 1-13, 2019. doi: 10.1007/s40962-019-00357-6

31-19     Zihao Yuan, Zhipeng Guo, and S.M. Xiong, Skin layer of A380 aluminium alloy die castings and its blistering during solution treatment, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, Vol. 35, No. 9, pp. 1906-1916, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2019.05.011

25-19     Stefano Mascetti, Raul Pirovano, and Giulio Timelli, Interazione metallo liquido/stampo: Il fenomeno della metallizzazione, La Metallurgia Italiana, No. 4, pp. 44-50, 2019. In Italian.

20-19     Fu-Yuan Hsu, Campbellology for runner system design, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 187-199, 2019. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_19

19-19     Chengcheng Lyu, Michail Papanikolaou, and Mark Jolly, Numerical process modelling and simulation of Campbell running systems designs, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 53-64, 2019. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_5

18-19     Adrian V. Catalina, Liping Xue, and Charles Monroe, A solidification model with application to AlSi-based alloys, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 201-213, 2019. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_20

17-19     Fu-Yuan Hsu and Yu-Hung Chen, The validation of feeder modeling for ductile iron castings, Shape Casting: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, pp. 227-238, 2019. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-06034-3_22

04-19   Santosh Reddy Sama, Tony Badamo, Paul Lynch and Guha Manogharan, Novel sprue designs in metal casting via 3D sand-printing, Additive Manufacturing, Vol. 25, pp. 563-578, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.009

02-19   Jingying Sun, Qichi Le, Li Fu, Jing Bai, Johannes Tretter, Klaus Herbold and Hongwei Huo, Gas entrainment behavior of aluminum alloy engine crankcases during the low-pressure-die-casting-process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 266, pp. 274-282, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.11.016

82-18   Xu Zhao, Ping Wang, Tao Li, Bo-yu Zhang, Peng Wang, Guan-zhou Wang and Shi-qi Lu, Gating system optimization of high pressure die casting thin-wall AlSi10MnMg longitudinal loadbearing beam based on numerical simulation, China Foundry, Vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 436-442, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s41230-018-8052-z

80-18   Michail Papanikolaou, Emanuele Pagone, Konstantinos Salonitis, Mark Jolly and Charalampos Makatsoris, A computational framework towards energy efficient casting processes, Sustainable Design and Manufacturing 2018: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Sustainable Design and Manufacturing (KES-SDM-18), Gold Coast, Australia, June 24-26 2018, SIST 130, pp. 263-276, 2019. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-04290-5_27

64-18   Vasilios Fourlakidis, Ilia Belov and Attila Diószegi, Strength prediction for pearlitic lamellar graphite iron: Model validation, Metals, Vol. 8, No. 9, 2018. doi: 10.3390/met8090684

51-18   Xue-feng Zhu, Bao-yi Yu, Li Zheng, Bo-ning Yu, Qiang Li, Shu-ning Lü and Hao Zhang, Influence of pouring methods on filling process, microstructure and mechanical properties of AZ91 Mg alloy pipe by horizontal centrifugal casting, China Foundry, vol. 15, no. 3, pp.196-202, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s41230-018-7256-6

47-18   Santosh Reddy Sama, Jiayi Wang and Guha Manogharan, Non-conventional mold design for metal casting using 3D sand-printing, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 34-B, pp. 765-775, 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.03.049

42-18   M. Koru and O. Serçe, The Effects of Thermal and Dynamical Parameters and Vacuum Application on Porosity in High-Pressure Die Casting of A383 Al-Alloy, International Journal of Metalcasting, pp. 1-17, 2018. /doi: 10.1007/s40962-018-0214-7

41-18   Abhilash Viswanath, S. Savithri, U.T.S. Pillai, Similitude analysis on flow characteristics of water, A356 and AM50 alloys during LPC process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol. 257, pp. 270-277, 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.02.031

29-18   Seyboldt, Christoph and Liewald, Mathias, Investigation on thixojoining to produce hybrid components with intermetallic phase, AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1960, no. 1, 2018. doi: 10.1063/1.5034992

28-18   Laura Schomer, Mathias Liewald and Kim Rouven Riedmüller, Simulation of the infiltration process of a ceramic open-pore body with a metal alloy in semi-solid state to design the manufacturing of interpenetrating phase composites, AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1960, no. 1, 2018. doi: 10.1063/1.5034991

41-17   Y. N. Wu et al., Numerical Simulation on Filling Optimization of Copper Rotor for High Efficient Electric Motors in Die Casting Process, Materials Science Forum, Vol. 898, pp. 1163-1170, 2017.

12-17   A.M.  Zarubin and O.A. Zarubina, Controlling the flow rate of melt in gravity die casting of aluminum alloys, Liteynoe Proizvodstvo (Casting Manufacturing), pp 16-20, 6, 2017. In Russian.

10-17   A.Y. Korotchenko, Y.V. Golenkov, M.V. Tverskoy and D.E. Khilkov, Simulation of the Flow of Metal Mixtures in the Mold, Liteynoe Proizvodstvo (Casting Manufacturing), pp 18-22, 5, 2017. In Russian.

08-17   Morteza Morakabian Esfahani, Esmaeil Hajjari, Ali Farzadi and Seyed Reza Alavi Zaree, Prediction of the contact time through modeling of heat transfer and fluid flow in compound casting process of Al/Mg light metals, Journal of Materials Research, © Materials Research Society 2017

04-17   Huihui Liu, Xiongwei He and Peng Guo, Numerical simulation on semi-solid die-casting of magnesium matrix composite based on orthogonal experiment, AIP Conference Proceedings 1829, 020037 (2017); doi: 10.1063/1.4979769.

100-16  Robert Watson, New numerical techniques to quantify and predict the effect of entrainment defects, applied to high pressure die casting, PhD Thesis: University of Birmingham, 2016.

88-16   M.C. Carter, T. Kauffung, L. Weyenberg and C. Peters, Low Pressure Die Casting Simulation Discovery through Short Shot, Cast Expo & Metal Casting Congress, April 16-19, 2016, Minneapolis, MN, Copyright 2016 American Foundry Society.

61-16   M. Koru and O. Serçe, Experimental and numerical determination of casting mold interfacial heat transfer coefficient in the high pressure die casting of a 360 aluminum alloy, ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA A, Vol. 129 (2016)

59-16   R. Pirovano and S. Mascetti, Tracking of collapsed bubbles during a filling simulation, La Metallurgia Italiana – n. 6 2016

43-16   Kevin Lee, Understanding shell cracking during de-wax process in investment casting, Ph.D Thesis: University of Birmingham, School of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, 2016.

35-16   Konstantinos Salonitis, Mark Jolly, Binxu Zeng, and Hamid Mehrabi, Improvements in energy consumption and environmental impact by novel single shot melting process for casting, Journal of Cleaner Production, doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.165, Open Access funded by Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, June 29, 2016

20-16   Fu-Yuan Hsu, Bifilm Defect Formation in Hydraulic Jump of Liquid Aluminum, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 2016, Band: 47, Heft 3, 1634-1648.

15-16   Mingfan Qia, Yonglin Kanga, Bing Zhoua, Wanneng Liaoa, Guoming Zhua, Yangde Lib,and Weirong Li, A forced convection stirring process for Rheo-HPDC aluminum and magnesium alloys, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 234 (2016) 353–367

112-15   José Miguel Gonçalves Ledo Belo da Costa, Optimization of filling systems for low pressure by FLOW-3D, Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Mecânica, http://hdl.handle.net/1822/40132, 2015

89-15   B.W. Zhu, L.X. Li, X. Liu, L.Q. Zhang and R. Xu, Effect of Viscosity Measurement Method to Simulate High Pressure Die Casting of Thin-Wall AlSi10MnMg Alloy Castings, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Published online, November 2015, DOI: 10.1007/s11665-015-1783-8, © ASM International.

88-15   Peng Zhang, Zhenming Li, Baoliang Liu, Wenjiang Ding and Liming Peng, Improved tensile properties of a new aluminum alloy for high pressure die casting, Materials Science & Engineering A651(2016)376–390, Available online, November 2015.

83-15   Zu-Qi Hu, Xin-Jian Zhang and Shu-Sen Wu, Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Die-Filling Behavior of High-Performance Die-Cast Al–Mg–Si–Mn Alloy, Acta Metall. Sin. (Engl. Lett.), DOI 10.1007/s40195-015-0332-7, © The Chinese Society for Metals and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015.

82-15   J. Müller, L. Xue, M.C. Carter, C. Thoma, M. Fehlbier and M. Todte, A Die Spray Cooling Model for Thermal Die Cycling Simulations, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

81-15   M. T. Murray, L.F. Hansen, L. Chilcott, E. Li and A.M. Murray, Case Studies in the Use of Simulation- Improved Yield and Reduced Time to Market, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

80-15   R. Bhola, S. Chandra and D. Souders, Predicting Castability of Thin-Walled Parts for the HPDC Process Using Simulations, 2015 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, October 2015

76-15   Prosenjit Das, Sudip K. Samanta, Shashank Tiwari and Pradip Dutta, Die Filling Behaviour of Semi Solid A356 Al Alloy Slurry During Rheo Pressure Die Casting, Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, pp 1-6, October 2015

74-15   Murat KORU and Orhan SERÇE, Yüksek Basınçlı Döküm Prosesinde Enjeksiyon Parametrelerine Bağlı Olarak Döküm Simülasyon, Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Science, Science Journal (CSJ), Vol. 36, No: 5 (2015) ISSN: 1300-1949, May 2015

69-15   A. Viswanath, S. Sivaraman, U. T. S. Pillai, Computer Simulation of Low Pressure Casting Process Using FLOW-3D, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 830-831, pp. 45-48, September 2015

68-15   J. Aneesh Kumar, K. Krishnakumar and S. Savithri, Computer Simulation of Centrifugal Casting Process Using FLOW-3D, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 830-831, pp. 53-56, September 2015

59-15   F. Hosseini Yekta and S. A. Sadough Vanini, Simulation of the flow of semi-solid steel alloy using an enhanced model, Metals and Materials International, August 2015.

44-15   Ulrich E. Klotz, Tiziana Heiss and Dario Tiberto, Platinum investment casting material properties, casting simulation and optimum process parameters, Jewelry Technology Forum 2015

41-15   M. Barkhudarov and R. Pirovano, Minimizing Air Entrainment in High Pressure Die Casting Shot Sleeves, GIFA 2015, Düsseldorf, Germany

40-15   M. Todte, A. Fent, and H. Lang, Simulation in support of the development of innovative processes in the casting industry, GIFA 2015, Düsseldorf, Germany

19-15   Bruce Morey, Virtual casting improves powertrain design, Automotive Engineering, SAE International, March 2015.

15-15   K.S. Oh, J.D. Lee, S.J. Kim and J.Y. Choi, Development of a large ingot continuous caster, Metall. Res. Technol. 112, 203 (2015) © EDP Sciences, 2015, DOI: 10.1051/metal/2015006, www.metallurgical-research.org

14-15   Tiziana Heiss, Ulrich E. Klotz and Dario Tiberto, Platinum Investment Casting, Part I: Simulation and Experimental Study of the Casting Process, Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2015, 59, (2), 95, doi:10.1595/205651315×687399

138-14 Christopher Thoma, Wolfram Volk, Ruben Heid, Klaus Dilger, Gregor Banner and Harald Eibisch, Simulation-based prediction of the fracture elongation as a failure criterion for thin-walled high-pressure die casting components, International Journal of Metalcasting, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 47-54, 2014. doi:10.1007/BF03355594

107-14  Mehran Seyed Ahmadi, Dissolution of Si in Molten Al with Gas Injection, ProQuest Dissertations And Theses; Thesis (Ph.D.), University of Toronto (Canada), 2014; Publication Number: AAT 3637106; ISBN: 9781321195231; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 76-02(E), Section: B.; 191 p.

99-14   R. Bhola and S. Chandra, Predicting Castability for Thin-Walled HPDC Parts, Foundry Management Technology, December 2014

92-14   Warren Bishenden and Changhua Huang, Venting design and process optimization of die casting process for structural components; Part II: Venting design and process optimization, Die Casting Engineer, November 2014

90-14   Ken’ichi Kanazawa, Ken’ichi Yano, Jun’ichi Ogura, and Yasunori Nemoto, Optimum Runner Design for Die-Casting using CFD Simulations and Verification with Water-Model Experiments, Proceedings of the ASME 2014 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, IMECE2014, November 14-20, 2014, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, IMECE2014-37419

89-14   P. Kapranos, C. Carney, A. Pola, and M. Jolly, Advanced Casting Methodologies: Investment Casting, Centrifugal Casting, Squeeze Casting, Metal Spinning, and Batch Casting, In Comprehensive Materials Processing; McGeough, J., Ed.; 2014, Elsevier Ltd., 2014; Vol. 5, pp 39–67.

77-14   Andrei Y. Korotchenko, Development of Scientific and Technological Approaches to Casting Net-Shaped Castings in Sand Molds Free of Shrinkage Defects and Hot Tears, Post-doctoral thesis: Russian State Technological University, 2014. In Russian.

69-14   L. Xue, M.C. Carter, A.V. Catalina, Z. Lin, C. Li, and C. Qiu, Predicting, Preventing Core Gas Defects in Steel Castings, Modern Casting, September 2014

68-14   L. Xue, M.C. Carter, A.V. Catalina, Z. Lin, C. Li, and C. Qiu, Numerical Simulation of Core Gas Defects in Steel Castings, Copyright 2014 American Foundry Society, 118th Metalcasting Congress, April 8 – 11, 2014, Schaumburg, IL

51-14   Jesus M. Blanco, Primitivo Carranza, Rafael Pintos, Pedro Arriaga, and Lakhdar Remaki, Identification of Defects Originated during the Filling of Cast Pieces through Particles Modelling, 11th World Congress on Computational Mechanics (WCCM XI), 5th European Conference on Computational Mechanics (ECCM V), 6th European Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics (ECFD VI), E. Oñate, J. Oliver and A. Huerta (Eds)

47-14   B. Vijaya Ramnatha, C.Elanchezhiana, Vishal Chandrasekhar, A. Arun Kumarb, S. Mohamed Asif, G. Riyaz Mohamed, D. Vinodh Raj , C .Suresh Kumar, Analysis and Optimization of Gating System for Commutator End Bracket, Procedia Materials Science 6 ( 2014 ) 1312 – 1328, 3rd International Conference on Materials Processing and Characterisation (ICMPC 2014)

42-14  Bing Zhou, Yong-lin Kang, Guo-ming Zhu, Jun-zhen Gao, Ming-fan Qi, and Huan-huan Zhang, Forced convection rheoforming process for preparation of 7075 aluminum alloy semisolid slurry and its numerical simulation, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 24(2014) 1109−1116

37-14    A. Karwinski, W. Lesniewski, P. Wieliczko, and M. Malysza, Casting of Titanium Alloys in Centrifugal Induction Furnaces, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials, Volume 59, Issue 1, DOI: 10.2478/amm-2014-0068, 2014.

26-14    Bing Zhou, Yonglin Kang, Mingfan Qi, Huanhuan Zhang and Guoming Zhu, R-HPDC Process with Forced Convection Mixing Device for Automotive Part of A380 Aluminum Alloy, Materials 2014, 7, 3084-3105; doi:10.3390/ma7043084

20-14  Johannes Hartmann, Tobias Fiegl, Carolin Körner, Aluminum integral foams with tailored density profile by adapted blowing agents, Applied Physics A, 10.1007/s00339-014-8377-4, March 2014.

19-14    A.Y. Korotchenko, N.A. Nikiforova, E.D. Demjanov, N.C. Larichev, The Influence of the Filling Conditions on the Service Properties of the Part Side Frame, Russian Foundryman, 1 (January), pp 40-43, 2014. In Russian.

11-14 B. Fuchs and C. Körner, Mesh resolution consideration for the viability prediction of lost salt cores in the high pressure die casting process, Progress in Computational Fluid Dynamics, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2014, Copyright © 2014 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

08-14 FY Hsu, SW Wang, and HJ Lin, The External and Internal Shrinkages in Aluminum Gravity Castings, Shape Casting: 5th International Symposium 2014. Available online at Google Books

103-13  B. Fuchs, H. Eibisch and C. Körner, Core Viability Simulation for Salt Core Technology in High-Pressure Die Casting, International Journal of Metalcasting, July 2013, Volume 7, Issue 3, pp 39–45

94-13    Randall S. Fielding, J. Crapps, C. Unal, and J.R.Kennedy, Metallic Fuel Casting Development and Parameter Optimization Simulations, International Conference on Fast reators and Related Fuel Cycles (FR13), 4-7 March 2013, Paris France

90-13  A. Karwińskia, M. Małyszaa, A. Tchórza, A. Gila, B. Lipowska, Integration of Computer Tomography and Simulation Analysis in Evaluation of Quality of Ceramic-Carbon Bonded Foam Filter, Archives of Foundry Engineering, DOI: 10.2478/afe-2013-0084, Published quarterly as the organ of the Foundry Commission of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ISSN, (2299-2944), Volume 13, Issue 4/2013

88-13  Litie and Metallurgia (Casting and Metallurgy), 3 (72), 2013, N.V.Sletova, I.N.Volnov, S.P.Zadrutsky, V.A.Chaikin, Modeling of the Process of Removing Non-metallic Inclusions in Aluminum Alloys Using the FLOW-3D program, pp 138-140. In Russian.

85-13    Michał Szucki,Tomasz Goraj, Janusz Lelito, Józef S. Suchy, Numerical Analysis of Solid Particles Flow in Liquid Metal, XXXVII International Scientific Conference Foundryman’ Day 2013, Krakow, 28-29 November 2013

84-13  Körner, C., Schwankl, M., Himmler, D., Aluminum-Aluminum compound castings by electroless deposited zinc layers, Journal of Materials Processing Technology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.12.01483-13.

77-13  Antonio Armillotta & Raffaello Baraggi & Simone Fasoli, SLM tooling for die casting with conformal cooling channels, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, DOI 10.1007/s00170-013-5523-7, December 2013.

64-13   Johannes Hartmann, Christina Blümel, Stefan Ernst, Tobias Fiegl, Karl-Ernst Wirth, Carolin Körner, Aluminum integral foam castings with microcellular cores by nano-functionalization, J Mater Sci, DOI: 10.1007/s10853-013-7668-z, September 2013.

46-13  Nicholas P. Orenstein, 3D Flow and Temperature Analysis of Filling a Plutonium Mold, LA-UR-13-25537, Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. Los Alamos Annual Student Symposium 2013, 2013-07-24 (Rev.1)

42-13   Yang Yue, William D. Griffiths, and Nick R. Green, Modelling of the Effects of Entrainment Defects on Mechanical Properties in a Cast Al-Si-Mg Alloy, Materials Science Forum, 765, 225, 2013.

39-13  J. Crapps, D.S. DeCroix, J.D Galloway, D.A. Korzekwa, R. Aikin, R. Fielding, R. Kennedy, C. Unal, Separate effects identification via casting process modeling for experimental measurement of U-Pu-Zr alloys, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 15 July 2013.

35-13   A. Pari, Real Life Problem Solving through Simulations in the Die Casting Industry – Case Studies, © Die Casting Engineer, July 2013.

34-13  Martin Lagler, Use of Simulation to Predict the Viability of Salt Cores in the HPDC Process – Shot Curve as a Decisive Criterion, © Die Casting Engineer, July 2013.

24-13    I.N.Volnov, Optimizatsia Liteynoi Tekhnologii, (Casting Technology Optimization), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), 3, 2013, 27-29. In Russian

23-13  M.R. Barkhudarov, I.N. Volnov, Minimizatsia Zakhvata Vozdukha v Kamere Pressovania pri Litie pod Davleniem, (Minimization of Air Entrainment in the Shot Sleeve During High Pressure Die Casting), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), 3, 2013, 30-34. In Russian

09-13  M.C. Carter and L. Xue, Simulating the Parameters that Affect Core Gas Defects in Metal Castings, Copyright 2012 American Foundry Society, Presented at the 2013 CastExpo, St. Louis, Missouri, April 2013

08-13  C. Reilly, N.R. Green, M.R. Jolly, J.-C. Gebelin, The Modelling Of Oxide Film Entrainment In Casting Systems Using Computational Modelling, Applied Mathematical Modelling, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2013.03.061, April 2013.

03-13  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A fast simulation of transient metal flow and solidification in a narrow channel. Part II. Model validation and parametric study, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.12.061.

02-13  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A fast simulation of transient metal flow and solidification in a narrow channel. Part I: Model development using lubrication approximation, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.12.060.

116-12  Jufu Jianga, Ying Wang, Gang Chena, Jun Liua, Yuanfa Li and Shoujing Luo, “Comparison of mechanical properties and microstructure of AZ91D alloy motorcycle wheels formed by die casting and double control forming, Materials & Design, Volume 40, September 2012, Pages 541-549.

107-12  F.K. Arslan, A.H. Hatman, S.Ö. Ertürk, E. Güner, B. Güner, An Evaluation for Fundamentals of Die Casting Materials Selection and Design, IMMC’16 International Metallurgy & Materials Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, 2012.

103-12 WU Shu-sen, ZHONG Gu, AN Ping, WAN Li, H. NAKAE, Microstructural characteristics of Al−20Si−2Cu−0.4Mg−1Ni alloy formed by rheo-squeeze casting after ultrasonic vibration treatment, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 22 (2012) 2863-2870, November 2012. Full paper available online.

109-12 Alexandre Reikher, Numerical Analysis of Die-Casting Process in Thin Cavities Using Lubrication Approximation, Ph.D. Thesis: The University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Engineering Department (2012) Theses and Dissertations. Paper 65.

97-12 Hong Zhou and Li Heng Luo, Filling Pattern of Step Gating System in Lost Foam Casting Process and its Application, Advanced Materials Research, Volumes 602-604, Progress in Materials and Processes, 1916-1921, December 2012.

93-12  Liangchi Zhang, Chunliang Zhang, Jeng-Haur Horng and Zichen Chen, Functions of Step Gating System in the Lost Foam Casting Process, Advanced Materials Research, 591-593, 940, DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.591-593.940, November 2012.

91-12  Hong Yan, Jian Bin Zhu, Ping Shan, Numerical Simulation on Rheo-Diecasting of Magnesium Matrix Composites, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.192-193.287, Solid State Phenomena, 192-193, 287.

89-12  Alexandre Reikher and Krishna M. Pillai, A Fast Numerical Simulation for Modeling Simultaneous Metal Flow and Solidification in Thin Cavities Using the Lubrication Approximation, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications: An International Journal of Computation and Methodology, 63:2, 75-100, November 2012.

82-12  Jufu Jiang, Gang Chen, Ying Wang, Zhiming Du, Weiwei Shan, and Yuanfa Li, Microstructure and mechanical properties of thin-wall and high-rib parts of AM60B Mg alloy formed by double control forming and die casting under the optimal conditions, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.10.086, October 2012.

78-12   A. Pari, Real Life Problem Solving through Simulations in the Die Casting Industry – Case Studies, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

77-12  Y. Wang, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian and R.A. Miller, Rheological behavior models of metal matrix alloys in semi-solid casting process, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

76-12  A. Reikher and H. Gerber, Analysis of Solidification Parameters During the Die Cast Process, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

75-12 R.A. Miller, Y. Wang and K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, Estimating Cavity Fill Time, 2012 Die Casting Congress & Exposition, © NADCA, October 8-10, 2012, Indianapolis, IN.

65-12  X.H. Yang, T.J. Lu, T. Kim, Influence of non-conducting pore inclusions on phase change behavior of porous media with constant heat flux boundary, International Journal of Thermal Sciences, Available online 10 October 2012. Available online at SciVerse.

55-12  Hejun Li, Pengyun Wang, Lehua Qi, Hansong Zuo, Songyi Zhong, Xianghui Hou, 3D numerical simulation of successive deposition of uniform molten Al droplets on a moving substrate and experimental validation, Computational Materials Science, Volume 65, December 2012, Pages 291–301.

52-12 Hongbing Ji, Yixin Chen and Shengzhou Chen, Numerical Simulation of Inner-Outer Couple Cooling Slab Continuous Casting in the Filling Process, Advanced Materials Research (Volumes 557-559), Advanced Materials and Processes II, pp. 2257-2260, July 2012.

47-12    Petri Väyrynen, Lauri Holappa, and Seppo Louhenkilpi, Simulation of Melting of Alloying Materials in Steel Ladle, SCANMET IV – 4th International Conference on Process Development in Iron and Steelmaking, Lulea, Sweden, June 10-13, 2012.

46-12  Bin Zhang and Dave Salee, Metal Flow and Heat Transfer in Billet DC Casting Using Wagstaff® Optifill™ Metal Distribution Systems, 5th International Metal Quality Workshop, United Arab Emirates Dubai, March 18-22, 2012.

45-12 D.R. Gunasegaram, M. Givord, R.G. O’Donnell and B.R. Finnin, Improvements engineered in UTS and elongation of aluminum alloy high pressure die castings through the alteration of runner geometry and plunger velocity, Materials Science & Engineering.

44-12    Antoni Drys and Stefano Mascetti, Aluminum Casting Simulations, Desktop Engineering, September 2012

42-12   Huizhen Duan, Jiangnan Shen and Yanping Li, Comparative analysis of HPDC process of an auto part with ProCAST and FLOW-3D, Applied Mechanics and Materials Vols. 184-185 (2012) pp 90-94, Online available since 2012/Jun/14 at www.scientific.net, © (2012) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland, doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.184-185.90.

41-12    Deniece R. Korzekwa, Cameron M. Knapp, David A. Korzekwa, and John W. Gibbs, Co-Design – Fabrication of Unalloyed Plutonium, LA-UR-12-23441, MDI Summer Research Group Workshop Advanced Manufacturing, 2012-07-25/2012-07-26 (Los Alamos, New Mexico, United States)

29-12  Dario Tiberto and Ulrich E. Klotz, Computer simulation applied to jewellery casting: challenges, results and future possibilities, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng.33 012008. Full paper available at IOP.

28-12  Y Yue and N R Green, Modelling of different entrainment mechanisms and their influences on the mechanical reliability of Al-Si castings, 2012 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 33,012072.Full paper available at IOP.

27-12  E Kaschnitz, Numerical simulation of centrifugal casting of pipes, 2012 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 33 012031, Issue 1. Full paper available at IOP.

15-12  C. Reilly, N.R Green, M.R. Jolly, The Present State Of Modeling Entrainment Defects In The Shape Casting Process, Applied Mathematical Modelling, Available online 27 April 2012, ISSN 0307-904X, 10.1016/j.apm.2012.04.032.

12-12   Andrei Starobin, Tony Hirt, Hubert Lang, and Matthias Todte, Core drying simulation and validation, International Foundry Research, GIESSEREIFORSCHUNG 64 (2012) No. 1, ISSN 0046-5933, pp 2-5

10-12  H. Vladimir Martínez and Marco F. Valencia (2012). Semisolid Processing of Al/β-SiC Composites by Mechanical Stirring Casting and High Pressure Die Casting, Recent Researches in Metallurgical Engineering – From Extraction to Forming, Dr Mohammad Nusheh (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0356-1, InTech

07-12     Amir H. G. Isfahani and James M. Brethour, Simulating Thermal Stresses and Cooling Deformations, Die Casting Engineer, March 2012

06-12   Shuisheng Xie, Youfeng He and Xujun Mi, Study on Semi-solid Magnesium Alloys Slurry Preparation and Continuous Roll-casting Process, Magnesium Alloys – Design, Processing and Properties, ISBN: 978-953-307-520-4, InTech.

04-12 J. Spangenberg, N. Roussel, J.H. Hattel, H. Stang, J. Skocek, M.R. Geiker, Flow induced particle migration in fresh concrete: Theoretical frame, numerical simulations and experimental results on model fluids, Cement and Concrete Research, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2012.01.007, February 2012.

01-12   Lee, B., Baek, U., and Han, J., Optimization of Gating System Design for Die Casting of Thin Magnesium Alloy-Based Multi-Cavity LCD Housings, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Springer New York, Issn: 1059-9495, 10.1007/s11665-011-0111-1, Volume 1 / 1992 – Volume 21 / 2012. Available online at Springer Link.

104-11  Fu-Yuan Hsu and Huey Jiuan Lin, Foam Filters Used in Gravity Casting, Metall and Materi Trans B (2011) 42: 1110. doi:10.1007/s11663-011-9548-8.

99-11    Eduardo Trejo, Centrifugal Casting of an Aluminium Alloy, thesis: Doctor of Philosophy, Metallurgy and Materials School of Engineering University of Birmingham, October 2011. Full paper available upon request.

93-11  Olga Kononova, Andrejs Krasnikovs ,Videvuds Lapsa,Jurijs Kalinka and Angelina Galushchak, Internal Structure Formation in High Strength Fiber Concrete during Casting, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 59 2011

76-11  J. Hartmann, A. Trepper, and C. Körner, Aluminum Integral Foams with Near-Microcellular Structure, Advanced Engineering Materials 2011, Volume 13 (2011) No. 11, © Wiley-VCH

71-11  Fu-Yuan Hsu and Yao-Ming Yang Confluence Weld in an Aluminum Gravity Casting, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Available online 23 November 2011, ISSN 0924-0136, 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2011.11.006.

65-11     V.A. Chaikin, A.V. Chaikin, I.N.Volnov, A Study of the Process of Late Modification Using Simulation, in Zagotovitelnye Proizvodstva v Mashinostroenii, 10, 2011, 8-12. In Russian.

54-11  Ngadia Taha Niane and Jean-Pierre Michalet, Validation of Foundry Process for Aluminum Parts with FLOW-3D Software, Proceedings of the 2011 International Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting, 2011.

51-11    A. Reikher and H. Gerber, Calculation of the Die Cast parameters of the Thin Wall Aluminum Cast Part, 2011 Die Casting Congress & Tabletop, Columbus, OH, September 19-21, 2011

50-11   Y. Wang, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, and R.A. Miller, Runner design optimization based on CFD simulation for a die with multiple cavities, 2011 Die Casting Congress & Tabletop, Columbus, OH, September 19-21, 2011

48-11 A. Karwiński, W. Leśniewski, S. Pysz, P. Wieliczko, The technology of precision casting of titanium alloys by centrifugal process, Archives of Foundry Engineering, ISSN: 1897-3310), Volume 11, Issue 3/2011, 73-80, 2011.

46-11  Daniel Einsiedler, Entwicklung einer Simulationsmethodik zur Simulation von Strömungs- und Trocknungsvorgängen bei Kernfertigungsprozessen mittels CFD (Development of a simulation methodology for simulating flow and drying operations in core production processes using CFD), MSc thesis at Technical University of Aalen in Germany (Hochschule Aalen), 2011.

44-11  Bin Zhang and Craig Shaber, Aluminum Ingot Thermal Stress Development Modeling of the Wagstaff® EpsilonTM Rolling Ingot DC Casting System during the Start-up Phase, Materials Science Forum Vol. 693 (2011) pp 196-207, © 2011 Trans Tech Publications, July, 2011.

43-11 Vu Nguyen, Patrick Rohan, John Grandfield, Alex Levin, Kevin Naidoo, Kurt Oswald, Guillaume Girard, Ben Harker, and Joe Rea, Implementation of CASTfill low-dross pouring system for ingot casting, Materials Science Forum Vol. 693 (2011) pp 227-234, © 2011 Trans Tech Publications, July, 2011.

40-11  A. Starobin, D. Goettsch, M. Walker, D. Burch, Gas Pressure in Aluminum Block Water Jacket Cores, © 2011 American Foundry Society, International Journal of Metalcasting/Summer 2011

37-11 Ferencz Peti, Lucian Grama, Analyze of the Possible Causes of Porosity Type Defects in Aluminum High Pressure Diecast Parts, Scientific Bulletin of the Petru Maior University of Targu Mures, Vol. 8 (XXV) no. 1, 2011, ISSN 1841-9267

31-11  Johannes Hartmann, André Trepper, Carolin Körner, Aluminum Integral Foams with Near-Microcellular Structure, Advanced Engineering Materials, 13: n/a. doi: 10.1002/adem.201100035, June 2011.

27-11  A. Pari, Optimization of HPDC Process using Flow Simulation Case Studies, Die Casting Engineer, July 2011

26-11    A. Reikher, H. Gerber, Calculation of the Die Cast Parameters of the Thin Wall Aluminum Die Casting Part, Die Casting Engineer, July 2011

21-11 Thang Nguyen, Vu Nguyen, Morris Murray, Gary Savage, John Carrig, Modelling Die Filling in Ultra-Thin Aluminium Castings, Materials Science Forum (Volume 690), Light Metals Technology V, pp 107-111, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.690.107, June 2011.

19-11 Jon Spangenberg, Cem Celal Tutum, Jesper Henri Hattel, Nicolas Roussel, Metter Rica Geiker, Optimization of Casting Process Parameters for Homogeneous Aggregate Distribution in Self-Compacting Concrete: A Feasibility Study, © IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation, 2011, New Orleans, USA

16-11  A. Starobin, C.W. Hirt, H. Lang, and M. Todte, Core Drying Simulation and Validations, AFS Proceedings 2011, © American Foundry Society, Presented at the 115th Metalcasting Congress, Schaumburg, Illinois, April 2011.

15-11  J. J. Hernández-Ortega, R. Zamora, J. López, and F. Faura, Numerical Analysis of Air Pressure Effects on the Flow Pattern during the Filling of a Vertical Die Cavity, AIP Conf. Proc., Volume 1353, pp. 1238-1243, The 14th International Esaform Conference on Material Forming: Esaform 2011; doi:10.1063/1.3589686, May 2011. Available online.

10-11 Abbas A. Khalaf and Sumanth Shankar, Favorable Environment for Nondentric Morphology in Controlled Diffusion Solidification, DOI: 10.1007/s11661-011-0641-z, © The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2011, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, March 11, 2011.

08-11 Hai Peng Li, Chun Yong Liang, Li Hui Wang, Hong Shui Wang, Numerical Simulation of Casting Process for Gray Iron Butterfly Valve, Advanced Materials Research, 189-193, 260, February 2011.

04-11  C.W. Hirt, Predicting Core Shooting, Drying and Defect Development, Foundry Management & Technology, January 2011.

76-10  Zhizhong Sun, Henry Hu, Alfred Yu, Numerical Simulation and Experimental Study of Squeeze Casting Magnesium Alloy AM50, Magnesium Technology 2010, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition, February 14-18, 2010, Seattle, WA.

68-10  A. Reikher, H. Gerber, K.M. Pillai, T.-C. Jen, Natural Convection—An Overlooked Phenomenon of the Solidification Process, Die Casting Engineer, January 2010

54-10    Andrea Bernardoni, Andrea Borsi, Stefano Mascetti, Alessandro Incognito and Matteo Corrado, Fonderia Leonardo aveva ragione! L’enorme cavallo dedicato a Francesco Sforza era materialmente realizzabile, A&C – Analisis e Calcolo, Giugno 2010. In  Italian.

48-10  J. J. Hernández-Ortega, R. Zamora, J. Palacios, J. López and F. Faura, An Experimental and Numerical Study of Flow Patterns and Air Entrapment Phenomena During the Filling of a Vertical Die Cavity, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng., October 2010, Volume 132, Issue 5, 05101, doi:10.1115/1.4002535.

47-10  A.V. Chaikin, I.N. Volnov, and V.A. Chaikin, Development of Dispersible Mixed Inoculant Compositions Using the FLOW-3D Program, Liteinoe Proizvodstvo, October, 2010, in Russian.

42-10  H. Lakshmi, M.C. Vinay Kumar, Raghunath, P. Kumar, V. Ramanarayanan, K.S.S. Murthy, P. Dutta, Induction reheating of A356.2 aluminum alloy and thixocasting as automobile component, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 20(20101) s961-s967.

41-10  Pamela J. Waterman, Understanding Core-Gas Defects, Desktop Engineering, October 2010. Available online at Desktop Engineering. Also published in the Foundry Trade Journal, November 2010.

39-10  Liu Zheng, Jia Yingying, Mao Pingli, Li Yang, Wang Feng, Wang Hong, Zhou Le, Visualization of Die Casting Magnesium Alloy Steering Bracket, Special Casting & Nonferrous Alloys, ISSN: 1001-2249, CN: 42-1148/TG, 2010-04. In Chinese.

37-10  Morris Murray, Lars Feldager Hansen, and Carl Reinhardt, I Have Defects – Now What, Die Casting Engineer, September 2010

36-10  Stefano Mascetti, Using Flow Analysis Software to Optimize Piston Velocity for an HPDC Process, Die Casting Engineer, September 2010. Also available in Italian: Ottimizzare la velocita del pistone in pressofusione.  A & C, Analisi e Calcolo, Anno XII, n. 42, Gennaio 2011, ISSN 1128-3874.

32-10  Guan Hai Yan, Sheng Dun Zhao, Zheng Hui Sha, Parameters Optimization of Semisolid Diecasting Process for Air-Conditioner’s Triple Valve in HPb59-1 Alloy, Advanced Materials Research (Volumes 129 – 131), Vol. Material and Manufacturing Technology, pp. 936-941, DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.129-131.936, August 2010.

29-10 Zheng Peng, Xu Jun, Zhang Zhifeng, Bai Yuelong, and Shi Likai, Numerical Simulation of Filling of Rheo-diecasting A357 Aluminum Alloy, Special Casting & Nonferrous Alloys, DOI: CNKI:SUN:TZZZ.0.2010-01-024, 2010.

27-10 For an Aerospace Diecasting, Littler Uses Simulation to Reveal Defects, and Win a New Order, Foundry Management & Technology, July 2010

23-10 Michael R. Barkhudarov, Minimizing Air Entrainment, The Canadian Die Caster, June 2010

15-10 David H. Kirkwood, Michel Suery, Plato Kapranos, Helen V. Atkinson, and Kenneth P. Young, Semi-solid Processing of Alloys, 2010, XII, 172 p. 103 illus., 19 in color., Hardcover ISBN: 978-3-642-00705-7.

09-10  Shannon Wetzel, Fullfilling Da Vinci’s Dream, Modern Casting, April 2010.

08-10 B.I. Semenov, K.M. Kushtarov, Semi-solid Manufacturing of Castings, New Industrial Technologies, Publication of Moscow State Technical University n.a. N.E. Bauman, 2009 (in Russian)

07-10 Carl Reilly, Development Of Quantitative Casting Quality Assessment Criteria Using Process Modelling, thesis: The University of Birmingham, March 2010 (Available upon request)

06-10 A. Pari, Optimization of HPDC Process using Flow Simulation – Case Studies, CastExpo ’10, NADCA, Orlando, Florida, March 2010

05-10 M.C. Carter, S. Palit, and M. Littler, Characterizing Flow Losses Occurring in Air Vents and Ejector Pins in High Pressure Die Castings, CastExpo ’10, NADCA, Orlando, Florida, March 2010

04-10 Pamela Waterman, Simulating Porosity Factors, Foundry Management Technology, March 2010, Article available at Foundry Management Technology

03-10 C. Reilly, M.R. Jolly, N.R. Green, JC Gebelin, Assessment of Casting Filling by Modeling Surface Entrainment Events Using CFD, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition (Jim Evans Honorary Symposium), Seattle, Washington, USA, February 14-18, 2010

02-10 P. Väyrynen, S. Wang, J. Laine and S.Louhenkilpi, Control of Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Inclusions in Continuous Casting – CFD and Neural Network Studies, 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition (Jim Evans Honorary Symposium), Seattle, Washington, USA, February 14-18, 2010

60-09   Somlak Wannarumon, and Marco Actis Grande, Comparisons of Computer Fluid Dynamic Software Programs applied to Jewelry Investment Casting Process, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 55 2009.

59-09   Marco Actis Grande and Somlak Wannarumon, Numerical Simulation of Investment Casting of Gold Jewelry: Experiments and Validations, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol:3 2009-07-24

56-09  Jozef Kasala, Ondrej Híreš, Rudolf Pernis, Start-up Phase Modeling of Semi Continuous Casting Process of Brass Billets, Metal 2009, 19.-21.5.2009

51-09  In-Ting Hong, Huan-Chien Tung, Chun-Hao Chiu and Hung-Shang Huang, Effect of Casting Parameters on Microstructure and Casting Quality of Si-Al Alloy for Vacuum Sputtering, China Steel Technical Report, No. 22, pp. 33-40, 2009.

42-09  P. Väyrynen, S. Wang, S. Louhenkilpi and L. Holappa, Modeling and Removal of Inclusions in Continuous Casting, Materials Science & Technology 2009 Conference & Exhibition, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, October 25-29, 2009

41-09 O.Smirnov, P.Väyrynen, A.Kravchenko and S.Louhenkilpi, Modern Methods of Modeling Fluid Flow and Inclusions Motion in Tundish Bath – General View, Proceedings of Steelsim 2009 – 3rd International Conference on Simulation and Modelling of Metallurgical Processes in Steelmaking, Leoben, Austria, September 8-10, 2009

21-09 A. Pari, Case Studies – Optimization of HPDC Process Using Flow Simulation, Die Casting Engineer, July 2009

20-09 M. Sirvio, M. Wos, Casting directly from a computer model by using advanced simulation software, FLOW-3D Cast, Archives of Foundry Engineering Volume 9, Issue 1/2009, 79-82

19-09 Andrei Starobin, C.W. Hirt, D. Goettsch, A Model for Binder Gas Generation and Transport in Sand Cores and Molds, Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Solidification Processes XII, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Minerals Society), June 2009

11-09 Michael Barkhudarov, Minimizing Air Entrainment in a Shot Sleeve during Slow-Shot Stage, Die Casting Engineer (The North American Die Casting Association ISSN 0012-253X), May 2009

10-09 A. Reikher, H. Gerber, Application of One-Dimensional Numerical Simulation to Optimize Process Parameters of a Thin-Wall Casting in High Pressure Die Casting, Die Casting Engineer (The North American Die Casting Association ISSN 0012-253X), May 2009

7-09 Andrei Starobin, Simulation of Core Gas Evolution and Flow, presented at the North American Die Casting Association – 113th Metalcasting Congress, April 7-10, 2009, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

6-09 A.Pari, Optimization of HPDC PROCESS: Case Studies, North American Die Casting Association – 113th Metalcasting Congress, April 7-10, 2009, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

2-09 C. Reilly, N.R. Green and M.R. Jolly, Oxide Entrainment Structures in Horizontal Running Systems, TMS 2009, San Francisco, California, February 2009

30-08 I.N.Volnov, Computer Modeling of Casting of Pipe Fittings, © 2008, Pipe Fittings, 5 (38), 2008. Russian version

28-08 A.V.Chaikin, I.N.Volnov, V.A.Chaikin, Y.A.Ukhanov, N.R.Petrov, Analysis of the Efficiency of Alloy Modifiers Using Statistics and Modeling, © 2008, Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), October, 2008

27-08 P. Scarber, Jr., H. Littleton, Simulating Macro-Porosity in Aluminum Lost Foam Castings, American Foundry Society, © 2008, AFS Lost Foam Conference, Asheville, North Carolina, October, 2008

25-08 FMT Staff, Forecasting Core Gas Pressures with Computer Simulation, Foundry Management and Technology, October 28, 2008 © 2008 Penton Media, Inc. Online article

24-08 Core and Mold Gas Evolution, Foundry Management and Technology, January 24, 2008 (excerpted from the FM&T May 2007 issue) © 2008 Penton Media, Inc.

22-08 Mark Littler, Simulation Eliminates Die Casting Scrap, Modern Casting/September 2008

21-08 X. Chen, D. Penumadu, Permeability Measurement and Numerical Modeling for Refractory Porous Materials, AFS Transactions © 2008 American Foundry Society, CastExpo ’08, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

20-08 Rolf Krack, Using Solidification Simulations for Optimising Die Cooling Systems, FTJ July/August 2008

19-08 Mark Littler, Simulation Software Eliminates Die Casting Scrap, ECS Casting Innovations, July/August 2008

13-08 T. Yoshimura, K. Yano, T. Fukui, S. Yamamoto, S. Nishido, M. Watanabe and Y. Nemoto, Optimum Design of Die Casting Plunger Tip Considering Air Entrainment, Proceedings of 10th Asian Foundry Congress (AFC10), Nagoya, Japan, May 2008

08-08 Stephen Instone, Andreas Buchholz and Gerd-Ulrich Gruen, Inclusion Transport Phenomena in Casting Furnaces, Light Metals 2008, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), 2008

07-08 P. Scarber, Jr., H. Littleton, Simulating Macro-Porosity in Aluminum Lost Foam Casting, AFS Transactions 2008 © American Foundry Society, CastExpo ’08, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

06-08 A. Reikher, H. Gerber and A. Starobin, Multi-Stage Plunger Deceleration System, CastExpo ’08, NADCA, Atlanta, Georgia, May 2008

05-08 Amol Palekar, Andrei Starobin, Alexander Reikher, Die-casting end-of-fill and drop forge viscometer flow transients examined with a coupled-motion numerical model, 68th World Foundry Congress, Chennai, India, February 2008

03-08 Petri J. Väyrynen, Sami K. Vapalahti and Seppo J. Louhenkilpi, On Validation of Mathematical Fluid Flow Models for Simulation of Tundish Water Models and Industrial Examples, AISTech 2008, May 2008

53-07   A. Kermanpur, Sh. Mahmoudi and A. Hajipour, Three-dimensional Numerical Simulation of Metal Flow and Solidification in the Multi-cavity Casting Moulds of Automotive Components, International Journal of Iron & Steel Society of Iran, Article 2, Volume 4, Issue 1, Summer and Autumn 2007, pages 8-15.

36-07 Duque Mesa A. F., Herrera J., Cruz L.J., Fernández G.P. y Martínez H.V., Caracterización Defectológica de Piezas Fundida por Lost Foam Casting Mediante Simulación Numérica, 8° Congreso Iberoamericano de Ingenieria Mecanica, Cusco, Peru, 23 al 25 de Octubre de 2007 (in Spanish)

27-07 A.Y. Korotchenko, A.M. Zarubin, I.A.Korotchenko, Modeling of High Pressure Die Casting Filling, Russian Foundryman, December 2007, pp 15-19. (in Russian)

26-07 I.N. Volnov, Modeling of Casting Processes with Variable Geometry, Russian Foundryman, November 2007, pp 27-30. (in Russian)

16-07 P. Väyrynen, S. Vapalahti, S. Louhenkilpi, L. Chatburn, M. Clark, T. Wagner, Tundish Flow Model Tuning and Validation – Steady State and Transient Casting Situations, STEELSIM 2007, Graz/Seggau, Austria, September 12-14 2007

11-07 Marco Actis Grande, Computer Simulation of the Investment Casting Process – Widening of the Filling Step, Santa Fe Symposium on Jewelry Manufacturing Technology, May 2007

09-07 Alexandre Reikher and Michael Barkhudarov, Casting: An Analytical Approach, Springer, 1st edition, August 2007, Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-84628-849-4. U.S. Order Form; Europe Order Form.

07-07 I.N. Volnov, Casting Modeling Systems – Current State, Problems and Perspectives, (in Russian), Liteyshik Rossii (Russian Foundryman), June 2007

05-07 A.N. Turchin, D.G. Eskin, and L. Katgerman, Solidification under Forced-Flow Conditions in a Shallow Cavity, DOI: 10.1007/s1161-007-9183-9, © The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2007

04-07 A.N. Turchin, M. Zuijderwijk, J. Pool, D.G. Eskin, and L. Katgerman, Feathery grain growth during solidification under forced flow conditions, © Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1016/j.actamat.2007.02.030, April 2007

03-07 S. Kuyucak, Sponsored Research – Clean Steel Casting Production—Evaluation of Laboratory Castings, Transactions of the American Foundry Society, Volume 115, 111th Metalcasting Congress, May 2007

02-07 Fu-Yuan Hsu, Mark R. Jolly and John Campbell, The Design of L-Shaped Runners for Gravity Casting, Shape Casting: 2nd International Symposium, Edited by Paul N. Crepeau, Murat Tiryakioðlu and John Campbell, TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society), Orlando, FL, Feb 2007

30-06 X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, Simulation of EPS foam decomposition in the lost foam casting process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 182 (2007) 333–342, © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

25-06 Michael Barkhudarov and Gengsheng Wei, Modeling Casting on the Move, Modern Casting, August 2006; Modeling of Casting Processes with Variable Geometry, Russian Foundryman, December 2007, pp 10-15. (in Russian)

24-06 P. Scarber, Jr. and C.E. Bates, Simulation of Core Gas Production During Mold Fill, © 2006 American Foundry Society

7-06 M.Y.Smirnov, Y.V.Golenkov, Manufacturing of Cast Iron Bath Tubs Castings using Vacuum-Process in Russia, Russia’s Foundryman, July 2006. In Russian.

6-06 M. Barkhudarov, and G. Wei, Modeling of the Coupled Motion of Rigid Bodies in Liquid Metal, Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes – XI, May 28 – June 2, 2006, Opio, France, eds. Ch.-A. Gandin and M. Bellet, pp 71-78, 2006.

2-06 J.-C. Gebelin, M.R. Jolly and F.-Y. Hsu, ‘Designing-in’ Controlled Filling Using Numerical Simulation for Gravity Sand Casting of Aluminium Alloys, Int. J. Cast Met. Res., 2006, Vol.19 No.1

1-06 Michael Barkhudarov, Using Simulation to Control Microporosity Reduces Die Iterations, Die Casting Engineer, January 2006, pp. 52-54

30-05 H. Xue, K. Kabiri-Bamoradian, R.A. Miller, Modeling Dynamic Cavity Pressure and Impact Spike in Die Casting, Cast Expo ’05, April 16-19, 2005

22-05 Blas Melissari & Stavros A. Argyropoulous, Measurement of Magnitude and Direction of Velocity in High-Temperature Liquid Metals; Part I, Mathematical Modeling, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Volume 36B, October 2005, pp. 691-700

21-05 M.R. Jolly, State of the Art Review of Use of Modeling Software for Casting, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 337-346

20-05 J-C Gebelin, M.R. Jolly & F-Y Hsu, ‘Designing-in’ Controlled Filling Using Numerical Simulation for Gravity Sand Casting of Aluminium Alloys, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 355-364

19-05 F-Y Hsu, M.R. Jolly & J Campbell, Vortex Gate Design for Gravity Castings, TMS Annual Meeting, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, Eds, M. Tiryakioglu & P.N Crepeau, TMS, Warrendale, PA, ISBN 0-87339-583-2, Feb 2005, pp 73-82

18-05 M.R. Jolly, Modelling the Investment Casting Process: Problems and Successes, Japanese Foundry Society, JFS, Tokyo, Sept. 2005

13-05 Xiaogang Yang, Xiaobing Huang, Xiaojun Dai, John Campbell and Joe Tatler, Numerical Modelling of the Entrainment of Oxide Film Defects in Filling of Aluminium Alloy Castings, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, 17 (6), 2004, 321-331

10-05 Carlos Evaristo Esparza, Martha P. Guerro-Mata, Roger Z. Ríos-Mercado, Optimal Design of Gating Systems by Gradient Search Methods, Computational Materials Science, October 2005

6-05 Birgit Hummler-Schaufler, Fritz Hirning, Jurgen Schaufler, A World First for Hatz Diesel and Schaufler Tooling, Die Casting Engineer, May 2005, pp. 18-21

4-05 Rolf Krack, The W35 Topic—A World First, Die Casting World, March 2005, pp. 16-17

3-05 Joerg Frei, Casting Simulations Speed Up Development, Die Casting World, March 2005, p. 14

2-05 David Goettsch and Michael Barkhudarov, Analysis and Optimization of the Transient Stage of Stopper-Rod Pour, Shape Casting: The John Campbell Symposium, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 2005

36-04  Ik Min Park, Il Dong Choi, Yong Ho Park, Development of Light-Weight Al Scroll Compressor for Car Air Conditioner, Materials Science Forum, Designing, Processing and Properties of Advanced Engineering Materials, 449-452, 149, March 2004.

32-04 D.H. Kirkwood and P.J Ward, Numerical Modelling of Semi-Solid Flow under Processing Conditions, steel research int. 75 (2004), No. 8/9

30-04 Haijing Mao, A Numerical Study of Externally Solidified Products in the Cold Chamber Die Casting Process, thesis: The Ohio State University, 2004 (Available upon request)

28-04 Z. Cao, Z. Yang, and X.L. Chen, Three-Dimensional Simulation of Transient GMA Weld Pool with Free Surface, Supplement to the Welding Journal, June 2004.

23-04 State of the Art Use of Computational Modelling in the Foundry Industry, 3rd International Conference Computational Modelling of Materials III, Sicily, Italy, June 2004, Advances in Science and Technology,  Eds P. Vincenzini & A Lami, Techna Group Srl, Italy, ISBN: 88-86538-46-4, Part B, pp 479-490

22-04 Jerry Fireman, Computer Simulation Helps Reduce Scrap, Die Casting Engineer, May 2004, pp. 46-49

21-04 Joerg Frei, Simulation—A Safe and Quick Way to Good Components, Aluminium World, Volume 3, Issue 2, pp. 42-43

20-04 J.-C. Gebelin, M.R. Jolly, A. M. Cendrowicz, J. Cirre and S. Blackburn, Simulation of Die Filling for the Wax Injection Process – Part II Numerical Simulation, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Volume 35B, August 2004

14-04 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov, Charles H. Sherwin, and Ruel A. Overfelt, Hot Distortion Studies In Phenolic Urethane Cold Box System, American Foundry Society, 108th Casting Congress, June 12-15, 2004, Rosemont, IL, USA

13-04 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov and Ruel A. Overfelt, First V-Process Casting of Magnesium, American Foundry Society, 108th Casting Congress, June 12-15, 2004, Rosemont, IL, USA

5-04 C. Schlumpberger & B. Hummler-Schaufler, Produktentwicklung auf hohem Niveau (Product Development on a High Level), Druckguss Praxis, January 2004, pp 39-42 (in German).

3-04 Charles Bates, Dealing with Defects, Foundry Management and Technology, February 2004, pp 23-25

1-04 Laihua Wang, Thang Nguyen, Gary Savage and Cameron Davidson, Thermal and Flow Modeling of Ladling and Injection in High Pressure Die Casting Process, International Journal of Cast Metals Research, vol. 16 No 4 2003, pp 409-417

2-03 J-C Gebelin, AM Cendrowicz, MR Jolly, Modeling of the Wax Injection Process for the Investment Casting Process – Prediction of Defects, presented at the Third International Conference on Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Minerals and Process Industries, December 10-12, 2003, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 415-420

29-03 C. W. Hirt, Modeling Shrinkage Induced Micro-porosity, Flow Science Technical Note (FSI-03-TN66)

28-03 Thixoforming at the University of Sheffield, Diecasting World, September 2003, pp 11-12

26-03 William Walkington, Gas Porosity-A Guide to Correcting the Problems, NADCA Publication: 516

22-03 G F Yao, C W Hirt, and M Barkhudarov, Development of a Numerical Approach for Simulation of Sand Blowing and Core Formation, in Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Process-X”, Ed. By Stefanescu et al pp. 633-639, 2003

21-03 E F Brush Jr, S P Midson, W G Walkington, D T Peters, J G Cowie, Porosity Control in Copper Rotor Die Castings, NADCA Indianapolis Convention Center, Indianapolis, IN September 15-18, 2003, T03-046

12-03 J-C Gebelin & M.R. Jolly, Modeling Filters in Light Alloy Casting Processes,  Trans AFS, 2002, 110, pp. 109-120

11-03 M.R. Jolly, Casting Simulation – How Well Do Reality and Virtual Casting Match – A State of the Art Review, Intl. J. Cast Metals Research, 2002, 14, pp. 303-313

10-03 Gebelin., J-C and Jolly, M.R., Modeling of the Investment Casting Process, Journal of  Materials Processing Tech., Vol. 135/2-3, pp. 291 – 300

9-03 Cox, M, Harding, R.A. and Campbell, J., Optimised Running System Design for Bottom Filled Aluminium Alloy 2L99 Investment Castings, J. Mat. Sci. Tech., May 2003, Vol. 19, pp. 613-625

8-03 Von Alexander Schrey and Regina Reek, Numerische Simulation der Kernherstellung, (Numerical Simulation of Core Blowing), Giesserei, June 2003, pp. 64-68 (in German)

7-03 J. Zuidema Jr., L Katgerman, Cyclone separation of particles in aluminum DC Casting, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 607-614

6-03 Jean-Christophe Gebelin and Mark Jolly, Numerical Modeling of Metal Flow Through Filters, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 431-438

5-03 N.W. Lai, W.D. Griffiths and J. Campbell, Modelling of the Potential for Oxide Film Entrainment in Light Metal Alloy Castings, Proceedings from the Tenth International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes, Destin, FL, May 2003, pp. 415-422

21-02 Boris Lukezic, Case History: Process Modeling Solves Die Design Problems, Modern Casting, February 2003, P 59

20-02 C.W. Hirt and M.R. Barkhudarov, Predicting Defects in Lost Foam Castings, Modern Casting, December 2002, pp 31-33

19-02 Mark Jolly, Mike Cox, Ric Harding, Bill Griffiths and John Campbell, Quiescent Filling Applied to Investment Castings, Modern Casting, December 2002 pp. 36-38

18-02 Simulation Helps Overcome Challenges of Thin Wall Magnesium Diecasting, Foundry Management and Technology, October 2002, pp 13-15

17-02 G Messmer, Simulation of a Thixoforging Process of Aluminum Alloys with FLOW-3D, Institute for Metal Forming Technology, University of Stuttgart

16-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Computer Simulation of Lost Foam Process, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 319-324

15-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Computer Simulation of Inclusion Tracking, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 341-346

14-02 Barkhudarov, Michael, Advanced Simulation of the Flow and Heat Transfer of an Alternator Housing, Casting Simulation Background and Examples from Europe and the USA, World Foundrymen Organization, 2002, pp 219-228

8-02 Sayavur I. Bakhtiyarov, and Ruel A. Overfelt, Experimental and Numerical Study of Bonded Sand-Air Two-Phase Flow in PUA Process, Auburn University, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-091, Kansas City, MO

7-02 A Habibollah Zadeh, and J Campbell, Metal Flow Through a Filter System, University of Birmingham, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-020, Kansas City, MO

6-02 Phil Ward, and Helen Atkinson, Final Report for EPSRC Project: Modeling of Thixotropic Flow of Metal Alloys into a Die, GR/M17334/01, March 2002, University of Sheffield

5-02 S. I. Bakhtiyarov and R. A. Overfelt, Numerical and Experimental Study of Aluminum Casting in Vacuum-sealed Step Molding, Auburn University, 2002 American Foundry Society, AFS Transactions 02-050, Kansas City, MO

4-02 J. C. Gebelin and M. R. Jolly, Modelling Filters in Light Alloy Casting Processes, University of Birmingham, 2002 American Foundry Society AFS Transactions 02-079, Kansas City, MO

3-02 Mark Jolly, Mike Cox, Jean-Christophe Gebelin, Sam Jones, and Alex Cendrowicz, Fundamentals of Investment Casting (FOCAST), Modelling the Investment Casting Process, Some preliminary results from the UK Research Programme, IRC in Materials, University of Birmingham, UK, AFS2001

49-01   Hua Bai and Brian G. Thomas, Bubble formation during horizontal gas injection into downward-flowing liquid, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 1143-1159, 2001. doi.org/10.1007/s11663-001-0102-y

45-01 Jan Zuidema; Laurens Katgerman; Ivo J. Opstelten;Jan M. Rabenberg, Secondary Cooling in DC Casting: Modelling and Experimental Results, TMS 2001, New Orleans, Louisianna, February 11-15, 2001

43-01 James Andrew Yurko, Fluid Flow Behavior of Semi-Solid Aluminum at High Shear Rates,Ph.D. thesis; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2001. Abstract only; full thesis available at http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/8451 (for a fee).

33-01 Juang, S.H., CAE Application on Design of Die Casting Dies, 2001 Conference on CAE Technology and Application, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan, November 2001, (article in Chinese with English-language abstract)

32-01 Juang, S.H. and C. M. Wang, Effect of Feeding Geometry on Flow Characteristics of Magnesium Die Casting by Numerical Analysis, The Preceedings of 6th FADMA Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, July 2001, Chinese language with English abstract

26-01 C. W. Hirt., Predicting Defects in Lost Foam Castings, December 13, 2001

21-01 P. Scarber Jr., Using Liquid Free Surface Areas as a Predictor of Reoxidation Tendency in Metal Alloy Castings, presented at the Steel Founders’ Society of American, Technical and Operating Conference, October 2001

20-01 P. Scarber Jr., J. Griffin, and C. E. Bates, The Effect of Gating and Pouring Practice on Reoxidation of Steel Castings, presented at the Steel Founders’ Society of American, Technical and Operating Conference, October 2001

19-01 L. Wang, T. Nguyen, M. Murray, Simulation of Flow Pattern and Temperature Profile in the Shot Sleeve of a High Pressure Die Casting Process, CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, Presented by North American Die Casting Association, Oct 29-Nov 1, 2001, Cincinnati, To1-014

18-01 Rajiv Shivpuri, Venkatesh Sankararaman, Kaustubh Kulkarni, An Approach at Optimizing the Ingate Design for Reducing Filling and Shrinkage Defects, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, Presented by North American Die Casting Association, Oct 29-Nov 1, 2001, Cincinnati, TO1-052

5-01 Michael Barkhudarov, Simulation Helps Overcome Challenges of Thin Wall Magnesium Diecasting, Diecasting World, March 2001, pp. 5-6

2-01 J. Grindling, Customized CFD Codes to Simulate Casting of Thermosets in Full 3D, Electrical Manufacturing and Coil Winding 2000 Conference, October 31-November 2, 20

20-00 Richard Schuhmann, John Carrig, Thang Nguyen, Arne Dahle, Comparison of Water Analogue Modelling and Numerical Simulation Using Real-Time X-Ray Flow Data in Gravity Die Casting, Australian Die Casting Association Die Casting 2000 Conference, September 3-6, 2000, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

15-00 M. Sirvio, Vainola, J. Vartianinen, M. Vuorinen, J. Orkas, and S. Devenyi, Fluid Flow Analysis for Designing Gating of Aluminum Castings, Proc. NADCA Conf., Rosemont, IL, Nov 6-8, 1999

14-00 X. Yang, M. Jolly, and J. Campbell, Reduction of Surface Turbulence during Filling of Sand Castings Using a Vortex-flow Runner, Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August 2000

13-00 H. S. H. Lo and J. Campbell, The Modeling of Ceramic Foam Filters, Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August 2000

12-00 M. R. Jolly, H. S. H. Lo, M. Turan and J. Campbell, Use of Simulation Tools in the Practical Development of a Method for Manufacture of Cast Iron Camshafts,” Conference for Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes IX, Aachen, Germany, August, 2000

14-99 J Koke, and M Modigell, Time-Dependent Rheological Properties of Semi-solid Metal Alloys, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Aachen University of Technology, Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials 3: 15-30, 1999

12-99 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, Schneider, Wolfgang, Ray, Steven, Marthinusen, Jan-Olaf, Recent Improvements in Ceramic Foam Filter Design by Coupled Heat and Fluid Flow Modeling, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1999, pp. 1041-1047

10-99 Bongcheol Park and Jerald R. Brevick, Computer Flow Modeling of Cavity Pre-fill Effects in High Pressure Die Casting, NADCA Proceedings, Cleveland T99-011, November, 1999

8-99 Brad Guthrie, Simulation Reduces Aluminum Die Casting Cost by Reducing Volume, Die Casting Engineer Magazine, September/October 1999, pp. 78-81

7-99 Fred L. Church, Virtual Reality Predicts Cast Metal Flow, Modern Metals, September, 1999, pp. 67F-J

19-98 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, & Schneider, Wolfgang, Numerical Modeling of Fluid Flow Phenomena in the Launder-integrated Tool Within Casting Unit Development, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1998, pp. 1175-1182

18-98 X. Yang & J. Campbell, Liquid Metal Flow in a Pouring Basin, Int. J. Cast Metals Res, 1998, 10, pp. 239-253

15-98 R. Van Tol, Mould Filling of Horizontal Thin-Wall Castings, Delft University Press, The Netherlands, 1998

14-98 J. Daughtery and K. A. Williams, Thermal Modeling of Mold Material Candidates for Copper Pressure Die Casting of the Induction Motor Rotor Structure, Proc. Int’l Workshop on Permanent Mold Casting of Copper-Based Alloys, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Oct. 15-16, 1998

10-98 C. W. Hirt, and M.R. Barkhudarov, Lost Foam Casting Simulation with Defect Prediction, Flow Science Inc, presented at Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VIII Conference, June 7-12, 1998, Catamaran Hotel, San Diego, California

9-98 M. R. Barkhudarov and C. W. Hirt, Tracking Defects, Flow Science Inc, presented at the 1st International Aluminum Casting Technology Symposium, 12-14 October 1998, Rosemont, IL

5-98 J. Righi, Computer Simulation Helps Eliminate Porosity, Die Casting Management Magazine, pp. 36-38, January 1998

3-98 P. Kapranos, M. R. Barkhudarov, D. H. Kirkwood, Modeling of Structural Breakdown during Rapid Compression of Semi-Solid Alloy Slugs, Dept. Engineering Materials, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, U.K. and Flow Science Inc, USA, Presented at the 5th International Conference Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, 23-25 June 1998

1-98 U. Jerichow, T. Altan, and P. R. Sahm, Semi Solid Metal Forming of Aluminum Alloys-The Effect of Process Variables Upon Material Flow, Cavity Fill and Mechanical Properties, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, published in Die Casting Engineer, p. 26, Jan/Feb 1998

8-97 Michael Barkhudarov, High Pressure Die Casting Simulation Using FLOW-3D, Die Casting Engineer, 1997

15-97 M. R. Barkhudarov, Advanced Simulation of the Flow and Heat Transfer Process in Simultaneous Engineering, Flow Science report, presented at the Casting 1997 – International ADI and Simulation Conference, Helsinki, Finland, May 28-30, 1997

14-97 M. Ranganathan and R. Shivpuri, Reducing Scrap and Increasing Die Life in Low Pressure Die Casting through Flow Simulation and Accelerated Testing, Dept. Welding and Systems Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, presented at 19th International Die Casting Congress & Exposition, November 3-6, 1997

13-97 J. Koke, Modellierung und Simulation der Fließeigenschaften teilerstarrter Metallegierungen, Livt Information, Institut für Verfahrenstechnik, RWTH Aachen, October 1997

10-97 J. P. Greene and J. O. Wilkes, Numerical Analysis of Injection Molding of Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics – Part 2 Fiber Orientation, Body-in-White Center, General Motors Corp. and Dept. Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 37, No. 6, June 1997

9-97 J. P. Greene and J. O. Wilkes, Numerical Analysis of Injection Molding of Glass Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics. Part 1 – Injection Pressures and Flow, Manufacturing Center, General Motors Corp. and Dept. Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 37, No. 3, March 1997

8-97 H. Grazzini and D. Nesa, Thermophysical Properties, Casting Simulation and Experiments for a Stainless Steel, AT Systemes (Renault) report, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

7-97 R. Van Tol, L. Katgerman and H. E. A. Van den Akker, Horizontal Mould Filling of a Thin Wall Aluminum Casting, Laboratory of Materials report, Delft University, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

6-97 M. R. Barkhudarov, Is Fluid Flow Important for Predicting Solidification, Flow Science report, presented at the Solidification Processing ’97 Conference, July 7-10, 1997, Sheffield, U.K.

22-96 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich & Schneider, Wolfgang, 3-D Modeling of the Start-up Phase of DC Casting of Sheet Ingots, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1996, pp. 971-981

9-96 M. R. Barkhudarov and C. W. Hirt, Thixotropic Flow Effects under Conditions of Strong Shear, Flow Science report FSI96-00-2, to be presented at the “Materials Week ’96” TMS Conference, Cincinnati, OH, 7-10 October 1996

4-96 C. W. Hirt, A Computational Model for the Lost Foam Process, Flow Science final report, February 1996 (FSI-96-57-R2)

3-96 M. R. Barkhudarov, C. L. Bronisz, C. W. Hirt, Three-Dimensional Thixotropic Flow Model, Flow Science report, FSI-96-00-1, published in the proceedings of (pp. 110- 114) and presented at the 4th International Conference on Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, The University of Sheffield, 19-21 June 1996

1-96 M. R. Barkhudarov, J. Beech, K. Chang, and S. B. Chin, Numerical Simulation of Metal/Mould Interfacial Heat Transfer in Casting, Dept. Mech. & Process Engineering, Dept. Engineering Materials, University of Sheffield and Flow Science Inc, 9th Int. Symposium on Transport Phenomena in Thermal-Fluid Engineering, June 25-28, 1996, Singapore

11-95 Barkhudarov, M. R., Hirt, C.W., Casting Simulation Mold Filling and Solidification-Benchmark Calculations Using FLOW-3D, Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, pp 935-946

10-95 Grun, Gerd-Ulrich, & Schneider, Wolfgang, Optimal Design of a Distribution Pan for Level Pour Casting, Proc TMS Annual Meeting, 1995, pp. 1061-1070

9-95 E. Masuda, I. Itoh, K. Haraguchi, Application of Mold Filling Simulation to Die Casting Processes, Honda Engineering Co., Ltd., Tochigi, Japan, presented at the Modelling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1995

6-95 K. Venkatesan, Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Process Parameters on the Erosive Wear of Die Casting Dies, presented for Ph.D. degree at Ohio State University, 1995

5-95 J. Righi, A. F. LaCamera, S. A. Jones, W. G. Truckner, T. N. Rouns, Integration of Experience and Simulation Based Understanding in the Die Design Process, Alcoa Technical Center, Alcoa Center, PA 15069, presented by the North American Die Casting Association, 1995

2-95 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Simulation and Comparison with Water Modeling Studies of the Inertia Dominated Cavity Filling in Die Casting, NUMIFORM, 1995

1-95 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Gate Velocity and Gate Size on the Quality of Die Casting Parts, NAMRC, 1995.

15-94 D. Liang, Y. Bayraktar, S. A. Moir, M. Barkhudarov, and H. Jones, Primary Silicon Segregation During Isothermal Holding of Hypereutectic AI-18.3%Si Alloy in the Freezing Range, Dept. of Engr. Materials, U. of Sheffield, Metals and Materials, February 1994

13-94 Deniece Korzekwa and Paul Dunn, A Combined Experimental and Modeling Approach to Uranium Casting, Materials Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, presented at the Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting, El Dorado Hotel, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1994

12-94 R. van Tol, H. E. A. van den Akker and L. Katgerman, CFD Study of the Mould Filling of a Horizontal Thin Wall Aluminum Casting, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, HTD-Vol. 284/AMD-Vol. 182, Transport Phenomena in Solidification, ASME 1994

11-94 M. R. Barkhudarov and K. A. Williams, Simulation of ‘Surface Turbulence’ Fluid Phenomena During the Mold Filling Phase of Gravity Castings, Flow Science Technical Note #41, November 1994 (FSI-94-TN41)

10-94 M. R. Barkhudarov and S. B. Chin, Stability of a Numerical Algorithm for Gas Bubble Modelling, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K., International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, Vol. 19, 415-437 (1994)

16-93 K. Venkatesan and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Simulation of Die Cavity Filling in Die Castings and an Evaluation of Process Parameters on Die Wear, Dept. of Industrial Systems Engineering, Presented by: N.A. Die Casting Association, Cleveland, Ohio, October 18-21, 1993

15-93 K. Venkatesen and R. Shivpuri, Numerical Modeling of Filling and Solidification for Improved Quality of Die Casting: A Literature Survey (Chapters II and III), Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, Report C-93-07, August 1993, Ohio State University

1-93 P-E Persson, Computer Simulation of the Solidification of a Hub Carrier for the Volvo 800 Series, AB Volvo Technological Development, Metals Laboratory, Technical Report No. LM 500014E, Jan. 1993

13-92 D. R. Korzekwa, M. A. K. Lewis, Experimentation and Simulation of Gravity Fed Lead Castings, in proceedings of a TMS Symposium on Concurrent Engineering Approach to Materials Processing, S. N. Dwivedi, A. J. Paul and F. R. Dax, eds., TMS-AIME Warrendale, p. 155 (1992)

12-92 M. A. K. Lewis, Near-Net-Shaiconpe Casting Simulation and Experimentation, MST 1992 Review, Los Alamos National Laboratory

2-92 M. R. Barkhudarov, H. You, J. Beech, S. B. Chin, D. H. Kirkwood, Validation and Development of FLOW-3D for Casting, School of Materials, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, presented at the TMS/AIME Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, March 3, 1992

1-92 D. R. Korzekwa and L. A. Jacobson, Los Alamos National Laboratory and C.W. Hirt, Flow Science Inc, Modeling Planar Flow Casting with FLOW-3D, presented at the TMS/AIME Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, March 3, 1992

12-91 R. Shivpuri, M. Kuthirakulathu, and M. Mittal, Nonisothermal 3-D Finite Difference Simulation of Cavity Filling during the Die Casting Process, Dept. Industrial and Systems Engineering, Ohio State University, presented at the 1991 Winter Annual ASME Meeting, Atlanta, GA, Dec. 1-6, 1991

3-91 C. W. Hirt, A FLOW-3D Study of the Importance of Fluid Momentum in Mold Filling, presented at the 18th Annual Automotive Materials Symposium, Michigan State University, Lansing, MI, May 1-2, 1991 (FSI-91-00-2)

11-90 N. Saluja, O.J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, On the Calculation of the Electromagnetic Force Field in the Circular Stirring of Metallic Melts, accepted in J. Appl. Physics, 1990

10-90 N. Saluja, O. J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, On the Calculation of the Electromagnetic Force Field in the Circular Stirring of Metallic Molds in Continuous Castings, presented at the 6th Iron and Steel Congress of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Nagoya, Japan, October 1990

9-90 N. Saluja, O. J. Ilegbusi, and J. Szekely, Fluid Flow in Phenomena in the Electromagnetic Stirring of Continuous Casting Systems, Part I. The Behavior of a Cylindrically Shaped, Laboratory Scale Installation, accepted for publication in Steel Research, 1990

8-89 C. W. Hirt, Gravity-Fed Casting, Flow Science Technical Note #20, July 1989 (FSI-89-TN20)

6-89 E. W. M. Hansen and F. Syvertsen, Numerical Simulation of Flow Behaviour in Moldfilling for Casting Analysis, SINTEF-Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Norway, Report No. STS20 A89001, June 1989

1-88 C. W. Hirt and R. P. Harper, Modeling Tests for Casting Processes, Flow Science report, Jan. 1988 (FSI-88-38-01)

2-87 C. W. Hirt, Addition of a Solidification/Melting Model to FLOW-3D, Flow Science report, April 1987 (FSI-87-33-1)

Real-World Validations

실제 산업현장에서의 검증

FLOW-3D 의 고객들은 끊임없이 자신의 설계 및 제조 공정을 개선하기 위하여 시뮬레이션을 사용한 결과와 실제를 비교 검증을 하고 있습니다.

Ladle Pour Simulation

Shot sleeve 공정을 최적화하는 것은 제품 품질을 보장하는 데 매우 중요합니다. FLOW-3D의 시뮬레이션 결과와 실제 사례 간의 비교는 시뮬레이션을 사용하여 엔지니어가 고가의 금형을 제조하기 전에 디자인을 향상시킬 수 있는 방법을 강조합니다. FLOW-3D의 GMO 기능을 이용하여 사용자는 전체 공정을 따라 실제 ladle로부터 fast shot까지 유체의 움직임을 정확하게 포착 할 수 있습니다. Simulation courtesy of Mr. Antoni Drys from Nemak Poland Sp. z o.o

Gravity Casting Validation

A gravity casting simulation compared with the reconstruction of the real filling, based on thermocoupled data. Courtesy of XC Engineering and Peugeot PSA.

Foundry: Simulating a Flow Fill Pattern

X 레이 사진 및 FLOW-3D 충전 시뮬레이션 비교표입니다. A356 알루미늄 합금으로의 사형 주형의 3 차원 중력 충진양상이고, legend 색은 용탕의 압력입니다. 시뮬레이션 결과는 대칭의 수직면에 나타나고 있습니다. X-rays courtesy of Modeling of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes VII, London, 1995.

X-ray validation of a sand mold filling

HPDC: Flow Pattern

Short shot compared to simulation results show good correlation. Courtesy of Littler Diecast Corporation.

Short sleeve validation – simulation versus casting part

HPDC Validation Showing Air Entrapment Defects

FLOW-3D의 Air Entrapment model을 사용하여 나온 시뮬레이션과 실험결과를 보여줍니다. 이는 세탁기 용 전동 모터에 대한 프론트 커버의 HPDC 결과입니다. 공기 관련 결함은 이미지의 컬러 형태로 정성적으로 표시됩니다. FLOW-3D 내의 다른 수치 기능에 의해 물리적인 air pocket도 명확하게 포착됩니다.

Successful comparison of casting simulation versus experimental results courtesy of Antrametal.

Modeling Air Entrapment

디젤 엔진 용 오일 필터 하우징(380 다이 캐스트 합금.)의 X 선 검증 사례입니다. X 선에 대한 자세한 영역은 최대 porosity concentration를 나타냅니다.

X-ray vs. FLOW-3D Cast validation of an oil filter housing for a diesel engine.

Simulation vs. Short Shot

Validation snapshots of actual casting parts vs. FLOW-3D  simulations. From left to right: A transmission housing, an oil pan and an auto part.

Validating a High Pressure Die Casting Filling

HPDC casting validation comparing FLOW-3D results to the actual part

Predicting Die Erosion

The area of die erosion due to cavitation was correctly located in a comparison of FLOW-3D results to a real-world case.

Core Drying Validation

A comparison made by BMW between simulation and experiment of the drying of an inorganic core.

Predicting Lost Foam Filling

Comparison of real time X-ray and FLOW-3D  metal flow simulation results on a lost foam L850 Block Bulkhead Slice. Simulation courtesy of GM Powertrain.

Lost Foam

Lost Foam

Lost foam 주조 방식은 얇은 벽들이 많고 다른 미세 구조들을 가진 거의 실물에 가까운 제품을 생산할 수 있고 조립에 필요한 가스켓 주고가 적게 요구가 되어 주조 회사들 사이에서 계속해서 인기를 끌고 있습니다. 그리고 모래 안에 접착제(binder) 사용이 거의 필요 없고 주형에 사용되는 모래는 재사용이 가능하여 비용을 더 절 약할 수 있습니다. 주조공정이 성공하려면 프로세스가 고도의 제어 능력도 필요합니다. 주조 엔지니어가 이러한 어려운 문제를 해결하기 위해 FLOW-3D는 lost foam  공정을 시뮬레이션 할 수 있는 특별한 모델을 가지고 있습니다. 이 모델을 이용하여 사용자는 lost foam 주형이 충진을 해석 할 수 있을 뿐 아니라 후속 응고 현상을 시뮬레이션 할 수 있습니다. 더 중요한 것은, FLOW-3D는 주름(fold) 또는 포획된 foam 제품과 관련된 다른 결함이 위치 할 가능성이 있는 곳을 예측할 수 있도록 해줍니다.

Filling Simulations

주조에서의 많은 결함은 용융 시 포획되는 공기에 의해 발생되고 주형 틀 안으로 들어가는 용탕이 비산될 때 공기의 계면에 의해 발생합니다. Lost foam 주조 공정은 용탕이 접촉시 불타버려 날라가는 rigid foam 주형 틀 안으로 충진 됨에 의해서 이러한 결함을 줄여줍니다. 이것은 용탕을 그대로 유지합니다. FLOW-3D의 lost foam 주조 시뮬레이션은 용탕온도와 압력, 게이트 크기와 위치 및 foam 특성 같은 충진 공정 변수를 설계하는 데 필요한 통찰력을 제공합니다.

Modeling Solidification

응고 공정 시뮬레이션은 주조 제품의 기계적 특성에 영향을 주는 Segregation, micro-porosity, macro-porosity 등과 같은 주조결함을 예측하고 조절하는 데 도움을 줍니다. 표시된 이미지는 lost foam 공정을 이용하여 알루미늄 V-6 엔진 블록의 응고 시뮬레이션입니다. 그림은 응고 후 수축 기공의 위치를 보여줍니다

Lost Foam Videos

제품 소개 요청

제품에 대한 기술시연 및 데모는 다음 링크에서 신청 가능하십니다.

FLOW-3D 기술시연/데모 요청

산업 분야별 해석 사례

주조분야
Gravity Pour 중력 주조
High Pressure Die Casting 고압 다이캐스팅
Tilt Casting 경동 주조
Centrifugal Casting 원심 주조
Investment Casting 정밀 주조
Vacuum Casting 진공 주조
Continuous Casting 연속 주조
Lost Foam Casting 소실 모형 주조
Fill and Defects Tracking 용탕 주입 및 결함 추적
Solidification and Shrinkage 응고 및 수축 해석
Thermal Stress Evolution and Deformation 열응력 및 변형 해석
물 및 환경 응용 분야
Wastewater Treatment and Recovery 폐수 처리 및 복구
Pump Stations 펌프장
Dams, Weirs, Spillways 댐, 위어, 여수로
River Hydraulics 강 유역
Inundation & Flooding 침수 및 범람
Open Channel Flow 개수로 흐름
Sediment and Scour 퇴적 및 세굴(쇄굴)
Plumes, Hydraulic Zones of Influence 기둥, 수리 영향 구역
Coastal and Critical Infrastructure Wave Run-Up 연안 및 핵심 인프라 웨이브 런업
에너지 분야
Fuel/cargo sloshing in oceangoing containers 해양 컨테이너 용 연료 /화물 슬로싱
Offshore platform wave effects 근해 플랫폼 파 영향
Separation devices undergoing 6 DOF motion 6 자유도 운동을 하는 분리 장치
Wave energy converters 파동 에너지 변환기
미세유체
Continuous-Flow 연속 흐름
Droplet, Digital 물방울, 디지털
Molecular Biology 분자 생물학
Opto-Microfluidics 광 마이크로 유체
Cell Behavior 세포 행동
Fuel Cells 연료 전지들
용접 제조
Laser Welding 레이저 용접
Laser Metal Deposition 레이저 금속 증착
Additive Manufacturing 첨가제 제조
Multi-Layer Build 다중 레이어 빌드
Polymer 3D Printing 폴리머 3D 프린팅
코팅 분야
Curtain Coating 커튼 코팅
Dip Coating 딥 코팅
Gravure Printing 그라비아 코팅
Roll Coating 롤 코팅
Slide Coating 슬라이드 코팅
Slot Coating 슬롯 코팅
Contact Insights 접촉면 분석
연안 / 해양분야
Breakwater Structures 방파제 구조물
Offshore Structures 항만 연안 구조물
Ship Hydrodynamics 선박 유체 역학
Sloshing & Slamming 슬로싱 & 슬래밍
Tsunamis 쓰나미 해석
생명공학 분야
Active Mixing 액티브 믹싱
Chemical Reactions 화학 반응
Dissolution 용해
Drug Delivery 약물 전달
Drug Particles 마약 입자
Microdispensers 마이크로 디스펜서
Passive Mixing 패시브 믹싱
Piezo Driven Pumps 피에조 구동 펌프
자동차 분야
Fuel Tanks 연료 탱크
Early Fuel Shut-Off 초기 연료 차단
Gear Interaction 기어 상호 작용
Filters 필터
Degas Bottles 병의 가스제거